This thesis has examined the influence of the environment on aspects of the acute stress response in juvenile and pro-larval Acipenser fulvescens.The acute stress response was examined in grouped and isolated juveniles. Catecholamines significantly increased in both treatments one minute post-stress and plasma glucose was significantly higher in isolated as compared to grouped fish one minute post-stress. In the second series of experiments fertilized eggs of A. fulvescens were raised at 9, 12 & 15°C. Chromaffin-like cells were studied using light and electron microscopy techniques. Development of renal tissue was also examined in these treatment groups. Two populations of chromaffin-like cells were identified, one in close association with the proximal tubule of the kidney, and the other in close association with the neural tube. Results suggest this latter population were immature pheochromoblast like-cells. Development of renal tissue followed a predictable pattern that was most rapid in the 15°C treatment.

Cardiac parasympathetic tone mediates hypoxic bradycardia in fish, however the specific cholinergic mechanisms underlying this response have not been established. In Chapter 2, bradycardia in zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae experiencing translational knockdown of the M2 muscarinic receptor was either prevented or limited at two different levels of hypoxia (PO2 = 30 or 40 Torr). Also, M2 receptor deficient fish exposed to exogenous procaterol (a presumed β2-adrenergic receptor agonist) had lower heart rates than similarly treated control fish, implying that the β2-adrenergic receptor may have a cardioinhibitory role in this species. Zebrafish have a single β1-adrenergic receptor (β1AR), but express two distinct β2-adrenergic receptor genes (β2aAR and β2bAR). Zebrafish β1AR deficient larvae described in Chapter 3 had lower resting heart rates than control larvae, which conforms to the stereotypical stimulatory nature of this receptor in the vertebrate heart. However, in larvae where loss of β2a/β2bAR and β1/β2bAR function was combined, heart rate was significantly increased. This confirmed my previous observation that the β2-adrenergic receptor has an inhibitory effect on heart rate in vivo. Fish release the catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine (the endogenous ligands of adrenergic receptors) into the circulation when exposed to hypoxia, if sufficiently severe. Zebrafish have two genes for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH1 and TH2), the rate limiting enzyme for catecholamine synthesis, which requires molecular oxygen as a cofactor. In Chapter 4, zebrafish larvae exposed to hypoxia for 4 days exhibited increased whole body epinephrine and norepinephrine content. TH2, but not TH1, mRNA expression decreased after 2 days of hypoxic exposure. The results of this thesis provide some of the first data on receptor-specific control of heart rate in fish under normal and hypoxic conditions. It also provides the first observations that catecholamine turnover and the mRNA expression of enzymes required for catecholamine synthesis in larvae are sensitive to hypoxia. Taken together, these data provide an interesting perspective on the balance of adrenergic and cholinergic control of heart rate in zebrafish larvae.

O câncer é um problema de saúde mundial que ceifa a vida de muitas pessoas, todos os dias. Nesse sentido, pesquisas voltadas à melhor compreensão do seu progresso e cura são de vital importância. Assim, um importante aspecto do desenvolvimento e crescimento de um tumor é a formação de novos vasos sanguíneos - angiogênese - e o desenvolvimento vascular. As catecolaminas estão envolvidas neste processo, entretanto, sua participação e mecanismos de ação ainda não estão completamente elucidados. Neste sentido, a contribuição específica do sítio catecólico e do sítio amínico, para a interação entre as catecolaminas e seus receptores específicos, bem como a relação com a angiogênese, tornou-se objeto de interesse de estudo. A fim de avaliar a participação de cada grupamento específico, realizou-se a imobilização do sítio catecólico, pela coordenação ao metal rutênio, gerando complexos com fórmula [Ru(NH3)4(cat-R)]Cl, onde \"cat-R\" é isoproterenol, dopamina, noradrenalina, catecol ou adrenalina. Cálculos teóricos e propriedades físico-químicas (por diversas técnicas) foram analisados após a coordenação ao íon metálico. Estudos de estabilidade fotoquímica foram conduzidos. Na sequência, estudou-se a atividade citotóxica e angiogênica destes complexos - utilizando-se como plataforma a membrana corioalantoica (CAM) de embriões de galinha. Para avaliar a atividade moduladora do tônus vascular exercida por estes compostos, estudos de reatividade vascular foram conduzidos para os complexos metálicos em comento, em aorta torácica de ratos. Os resultados obtidos sugerem se tratarem de agonistas parciais e/ou antagonistas dos respectivos receptores. Posteriormente, realizaram-se estudos em células para a análise de aumento de cálcio intracelular, em células tratadas com os complexos. Outrossim, ensaios de regeneração celular foram conduzidos com o intuito de se avaliar a atividade antiproliferativa dos complexos metálicos. Embora a possibilidade de interação específica entre os complexos com fórmula [Ru(NH3)4(cat-R)]Cl com os receptores celulares tenha sido verificada, estudos de interação com fs-DNA, via espectroscopia UV-vis e por deslocamento do brometo de etídio - acompanhada por espectroscopia de fluorescência - foram conduzidos. Na sequência, a interação entre os complexos e a proteína do soro humano albumina (HSA) foi analisada, por supressão de fluorescência. Posteriormente, com a finalidade de se entender o quanto a alteração dos coligantes afetaria as propriedades biológicas dos complexos, uma nova série de complexos metálicos com fórmula genérica [Ru(bpy)2(cat-R)]Cl onde \"cat-R\" é isoproterenol, dopamina, noradrenalina, catecol ou adrenalina. Essas novas espécies foram caracterizadas por técnicas físico-químicas e testada em alguns dos ensaios biológicos realizados para os complexos precedentes. Os resultados evidenciaram que as catecolaminas possuem atividade na angiogênese, sendo que seus efeitos podem ser modulados quando há impedimento do sítio catecólico, por exemplo, pela coordenação ao metal rutênio. Além disso, a substituição dos coligantes amônia, por ligantes piridínicos ocasionou o aumento da citotoxicidade, bem como da interação com DNA (provavelmente por mecanismos de intercalação) e HSA. / Cancer is a global health problem that causes the death of many people every day. In this way, researches aimed at understanding the progress and cure of this disease are desirable. Therefore, an important aspect of the development and growth of a tumor is the formation of the new blood vessels, known as angiogenesis, and the vascular development. The catecholamines are involved in this process, however, their role and mechanism of action are not completely elucidated. In this way, interaction between catecholamines and its receptors should be of interest, in order to understand the blocking mechanism of angiogenesis. Interactions with receptor should occur by catechol or amine site. In order to evaluate the participation of each specific group, the immobilization of the catechol site has been achieved by coordination to the ruthenium metal ion, generating [Ru(NH3)4(cat-R)]Cl, whereas \"cat-R\" is isoproterenol, dopamine, noradrenaline, catechol or adrenaline. Theoretical calculations and physical chemistry properties were analyzed after coordination to the metal ion. Photochemical studies were conducted. Subsequently, the cytotoxicity and angiogenic activity of these complexes were studied - using the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) of chicken embryos - as well the vascular tone modulating activity of these compounds - analyzed in thoracic aorta of rats. The results obtained suggest that they are partial agonists and/or antagonists of the respective receptors. The intracellular calcium increase was analyzed in cells treated with the complexes. Moreover, cell regeneration assays were conducted with the purpose of evaluating the antiproliferative activity of the ruthenium complexes. Although the possibility of specific interaction between [Ru(NH3)4(cat-R)]Cl complexes with cell receptors have been verified, we have checked also the involvement of DNA on all process. For this fs-DNA interaction studies using UV-vis spectroscopy and with ethidium bromide displacement assay were performed. Afterwards, the interaction between the complexes and Human serum albumin protein (HAS) was evaluated, by fluorescence quenching. The next question to be answered is concerning to the structure of ruthenium complex. Aiming to understand this we have synthesized new [Ru(bpy)2(cat-R)]Cl complexes whereas \"cat-R\" is isoproterenol, dopamine, noradrenaline, catechol or adrenaline. Those species were physical chemistry characterized, and they were analyzed by some biological assays. In conclusion, the results showed that catecholamines have activity in angiogenesis, and their effects can be modulated when the catechol site is not available, for example by the coordination of the ruthenium metal. In addition, the substitution of amino ligands by pyridine ligands has resulted in increased cytotoxicity as well as interaction with DNA (probably by intercalating mechanism) and HSA.

<p>The endothelium plays an important part in blood flow regulation by producing the vasodilatory substance nitric oxide (NO). Various studies have shown that commonly accepted risk factors for coronary heart disease, such as hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, smoking and mental stress impair endothelium-derived vasodilation by the NO-pathway. This thesis focuses on the effects of mental stress on the endothelium. Furthermore, the effects of epinephrine (E) and norepinephrine (NE) and blockades of adrenergic receptors were studied in the forearm in young healthy subjects.</p><p>Different blockades were given locally in the forearm, not affecting general hemodynamics. β-adrenoceptor blockade impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation (EDV), while α-adrenoceptor blockade and neurogenic blockade caused a general vasodilation which was not endothelium dependent. Neuropeptide Y did not seem to influence blood flow in the resting forearm.</p><p>A short period of mental stress induced by an arithmetic task, impaired EDV in the forearm. This negative effect could be blocked by β-adrenergic, but not α-adrenergic receptor blockade.</p><p>Local infusions of E and NE in the human forearm induced vasodilation and vasoconstriction, respectively. As both EDV and endothelium-independent vasodilation were affected by both E and NE, the two catecholamines did not seem to affect vascular tone by an endothelium-specific mechanism.</p><p>Both cold pressure stress and mental stress induced impairments in flow-mediated vasodilation (FMD) when normalised for the degree of hyperemic blood flow.</p><p>These findings give us new insights in how mental stress and sympathetic activation affects the endothelium and how the negative effects can be prevented.</p>

The endothelium plays an important part in blood flow regulation by producing the vasodilatory substance nitric oxide (NO). Various studies have shown that commonly accepted risk factors for coronary heart disease, such as hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, smoking and mental stress impair endothelium-derived vasodilation by the NO-pathway. This thesis focuses on the effects of mental stress on the endothelium. Furthermore, the effects of epinephrine (E) and norepinephrine (NE) and blockades of adrenergic receptors were studied in the forearm in young healthy subjects. Different blockades were given locally in the forearm, not affecting general hemodynamics. β-adrenoceptor blockade impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation (EDV), while α-adrenoceptor blockade and neurogenic blockade caused a general vasodilation which was not endothelium dependent. Neuropeptide Y did not seem to influence blood flow in the resting forearm. A short period of mental stress induced by an arithmetic task, impaired EDV in the forearm. This negative effect could be blocked by β-adrenergic, but not α-adrenergic receptor blockade. Local infusions of E and NE in the human forearm induced vasodilation and vasoconstriction, respectively. As both EDV and endothelium-independent vasodilation were affected by both E and NE, the two catecholamines did not seem to affect vascular tone by an endothelium-specific mechanism. Both cold pressure stress and mental stress induced impairments in flow-mediated vasodilation (FMD) when normalised for the degree of hyperemic blood flow. These findings give us new insights in how mental stress and sympathetic activation affects the endothelium and how the negative effects can be prevented.

Rett syndrome is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is predominately caused by mutations of the MECP2 gene. As neuronal apoptosis is not observed in RTT patients and MeCP2-deficient mice, the neurological deficits may be reversible. To address this, we reactivated MeCP2 expression ubiquitously in MeCP2-deficient mice after symptom onset. Our results showed that life span, behavioural performances, EEG activity, thermoregulation, and daily rhythmic activity were significantly improved after MeCP2 reactivation. Furthermore, the extent of improvement was dependent upon the efficiency of MeCP2 reactivation. To assess the role of the catecholaminergic system in Rett syndrome pathophysiology, we selectively preserved MeCP2 function within tyrosine hydroxylase expressing cells. We observed a significant improvement in the life span of male rescue mice and reduced sudden unexplained death rates in female rescue mice. Behavioural performances and EEG patterns were also significantly improved.

Rett syndrome is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is predominately caused by mutations of the MECP2 gene. As neuronal apoptosis is not observed in RTT patients and MeCP2-deficient mice, the neurological deficits may be reversible. To address this, we reactivated MeCP2 expression ubiquitously in MeCP2-deficient mice after symptom onset. Our results showed that life span, behavioural performances, EEG activity, thermoregulation, and daily rhythmic activity were significantly improved after MeCP2 reactivation. Furthermore, the extent of improvement was dependent upon the efficiency of MeCP2 reactivation. To assess the role of the catecholaminergic system in Rett syndrome pathophysiology, we selectively preserved MeCP2 function within tyrosine hydroxylase expressing cells. We observed a significant improvement in the life span of male rescue mice and reduced sudden unexplained death rates in female rescue mice. Behavioural performances and EEG patterns were also significantly improved.

The first study reports the development of a reusable, single-step system for the detection of specific substrates using oxidase-functionalized Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NPs) as a bienzyme system and using amplex ultrared (AU) as a fluorogenic substrate. In the presence of H2O2, the reaction pH between Fe3O4 NPs and AU was similar to the reaction of oxidase and the substrate. The catalytic activity of Fe3O4 NPs with AU was nearly unchanged following modification with poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDDA). Based on these features, we prepared a composite of PDDA-modified Fe3O4 NPs and oxidase for the quantification of specific substrates through the H2O2-mediated oxidation of AU. By monitoring fluorescence intensity at 587 nm of oxidized AU, the minimum detectable concentrations of glucose, galactose, and choline were found to be 3, 2, and 20 £gM using glucose oxidase-Fe3O4, galactose oxidase-Fe3O4, and choline oxidase-Fe3O4 composites, respectively. The identification of glucose in blood was selected as the model to validate the applicability of this proposed method. The second study follows the first one. Using the catalytic activity of Fe3O4 NPs with AU to detect four kinds of neurotransmitter, such as dopamine, L-DOPA, adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine). Because of there is specific interaction between Fe3O4 NPs and catecholamines (CAs), the Fe3O4 NPs will form CAs-Fe3O4 NPs composites in presence of CAs. The CAs on the Fe3O4 NPs surface must shelter the reaction between AU and H2O2, cause the fluorescence to be turned-off. The CAs just like a inhibitor, to inhibit the catalytic activity of Fe3O4 NPs. Therefore, we could use this inhibited system to detect the CAs compound concentration in the real sample.

When a patient is exposed surgical stress, the endocrine system secretes hormones in response to that stress. These hormones further activate the immune system to release cytokines and other acute phase reactions. These processes are supposed to protect the body by upregulating the innate immune system and producing an inflammatory response that acts to protect and heal. However, uncontrolled surgical stress may cause a weaker immune response that may lead to delayed wound healing. The phenomenon of unplanned perioperative hypothermia is known to expose patients to additional surgical stress. The purpose of this preliminary experimental study was to determine the effect of a preoperative warming intervention on the acute phase response of surgical stress in surgical patients. Specifically, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a prewarming intervention using a forced-air warming (FAW) device versus routine care (RC) using warmed cotton blankets on the development of unplanned hypothermia, cytokine production, and endocrine responses. It was hypothesized that 1) the FAW participants would experience less unplanned perioperative hypothermia than the RC participants; 2) the FAW participants would experience lower catecholamine and cortisol levels than the RC participants; and 3) the FAW participants would experience higher proinflammatory cytokine and CRP production intra- and postoperatively than the RC participants. Infrared tympanic temperatures and 4 blood samples were taken at 4 time intervals from each of the 28 (n = 14 each group) randomized participants that underwent routine general anesthesia surgery. Serum concentrations of CRP, cortisol and IL-1beta, IL- 6, TNF-alpha, and IFN-gamma, and plasma concentrations of epinephrine and norepinephrine were measured. To test the hypotheses across time and between groups, a repeated measures ANOVA design was used. Though FAW was not associated with a differential endocrine or inflammatory response in this small, preliminary study, further study of forced air warming as a preoperative nursing intervention is warranted. The finding of higher than expected IL-6 levels in the preoperative period suggests a potential role for anxiety, an important factor in psychoneuroimmunological pathways, that could affect recovery and healing. The relationship between surgical stress, anxiety, and preoperative IL-6 deserves further study.

Fenilcetonúria (PKU) é um erro inato do metabolismo causado pela deficiência da atividade da enzima fenilalanina hidroxilase, levando ao acúmulo de fenilalanina e seus metabólitos no sangue e tecidos. A hiperfenilalaninemia (HPA) causa danos importantes no cérebro, provavelmente causados por aumento de estresse oxidativo e diminuição da disponibilidade dos outros aminoácidos grandes neutros (LNAA), entre outros mecanismos. Pacientes diagnosticados precocemente também estão sujeitos a estes desequilíbrios. O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar em ratos: a) o efeito agudo do modelo de HPA na concentração de aminoácidos em plasma e cérebro total, b) o efeito do exercício regular em parâmetros de estresse oxidativo em cérebro total, conteúdo de catecolaminas em supra-renal e aspectos comportamentais na HPA crônica. Para o modelo agudo, os ratos foram divididos nos grupos HPA e Salina (SAL) (n=3). A HPA foi induzida através da administração subcutânea de alfa-metil-fenilalanina e fenilalanina, enquanto o grupo SAL recebeu salina. Os animais foram mortos 1 h após a injeção, no segundo dia de tratamento. Para o modelo crônico, os animais foram distribuídos no grupo Sedentário (Sed) ou Exercício (Exe), e subdivididos em SAL e HPA. Grupos HPA (n=16- 20) foram submetidos ao modelo durante 17 dias, enquanto os grupos SAL (n=16-20) receberam salina. Os grupos Exe realizaram duas semanas de exercício aeróbico com duração diária de 20 min. No 17º dia, 1 h após a injeção, os animais realizaram a primeira exposição ao teste de campo aberto e, 24 h depois, realizaram a segunda sessão. Após, os animais foram mortos e o cérebro total foi homogeneizado para determinação da lipoperoxidação, através do conteúdo de substâncias reativas ao ácido tiobarbitúrico (TBA-RS), e atividade das enzimas antioxidantes superóxido dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) e glutationa peroxidase (GPx). As glândulas supra-renais foram coletadas para análise de conteúdo de catecolaminas. O efeito agudo de HPA causou aumento de fenilalanina e diminuição de tirosina em plasma e cérebro, bem como diminuiu os níveis dos outros LNAA apenas no cérebro. Cronicamente, a HPA causou aumento de TBA-RS e SOD, e redução de CAT, GPx e conteúdo de catecolaminas. O exercício foi capaz de reverter todas as alterações encontradas no grupo HPA, exceto para a SOD. Quanto aos parâmetros comportamentais, a HPA causou diminuição na memória de habituação e o exercício regular preveniu esta alteração. Nenhuma alteração foi encontrada no grupo ExeSAL. Os ratos hiperfenilalaninêmicos foram mais responsivos aos benefícios produzidos pelo exercício regular. O treinamento físico parece ser uma estratégia interessante a ser estudada para a restauração do sistema antioxidante e de alterações comportamentais que ocorrem na PKU. / Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inborn error of metabolism caused by deficiency of phenylalanine hydroxylase, resulting in accumulation of phenylalanine and its metabolites in blood and tissues. Hyperphenylalaninemia (HPA) causes serious damage in the brain probably due to increased oxidative stress and decreased availability of other large neutral amino acids (LNAA), among other mechanisms. Patients early diagnosed are also subject to these imbalances. The objective of this study was to evaluate: a) the effect of acute HPA model on the concentration of LNAA in plasma and total brain, b) the effect of regular exercise on parameters of oxidative stress in total brain, catecholamine content in suprarenal and behavioral aspects in a chronic HPA model. HPA was induced by subcutaneous administration of alpha-methylphenylalanine and phenylalanine, while SAL group received saline. For the acute model, rats were divided into groups Saline (SAL) and HPA (n = 3). Animals were killed 1 h after last injection, at the second day of treatment. For the chronic model, animals were divided into sedentary group (Sed) or exercise group (Exe), and subdivided into SAL (n=16-20) and HPA (n=16-20). Administration continued as long as 17 days. Exe groups performed two weeks of daily aerobic exercise lasting 20 min. At the 17th day, 1 h after injection, the animals performed the first exposure to open field task, and 24 h later, performed the second session. After that, animals were killed and the whole brain was homogenized to evaluate lipid peroxidation through the content of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBA-RS), and activity of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). Suprarenal glands were collected for catecholamine content analysis. Acute HPA increased phenylalanine and decreased tyrosine in plasma and brain as well as decreased levels of other LNAA in the brain. Chronically, HPA increased TBA-RS and SOD activity, and reduced CAT and GPx activities in the brain and reduced catecholamine content into suprarenal. Regular exercise was able to prevent all the alterations found in HPA group, except for SOD activity. Regarding the behavioral data, HPA caused a decrease of habituation memory and regular exercise prevented this change. Exercise per se (ExeSAL group) produced no changes. HPA rats were more responsive to the benefits produced by regular exercise. Physical training appears to be an interesting strategy to be studied for the restoration of the antioxidant system and the behavioral changes that occur in PKU.