A hallmark feature of Dictyostelium development is the establishment and maintenance of precise cell-type proportions. In the case of D. discoideum, roughly 20% of the cells that aggregate form the stalk while the remaining 80% form the spores. In order to identify genes involved in cell-type proportioning Jaiswal et al. (2006) carried out random insertional mutagenesis (REMI) of the D. discoideum genome. This led to the identification of a novel gene, which was named trishanku (triA). A knock-out of triA did not show any defects during growth and early development but multiple defects later during development. To understand the reasons for the multiple developmental defects in the absence of triA, I looked at the genomic organization and the pattern of expression of the triA gene. In silico analysis points to the presence of more than one consensus D. discoideum promoter sequence upstream to exons1 and 2, raising the possibility that the triA gene could code for more than one transcript. Northern blot analysis confirms this prediction and provides evidence for the presence of two transcripts: triA1-2-3 (~ 2.9 kb, containing exons 1+2+3) and triA2-3 (~ 2 kb, containing exons 2+3). Both transcripts have exons 2 and 3 in common. In triA- cells, the REMI cassette is inserted in exon 2, which is common to both transcripts; thus, the absence of triA results in the lack of both. The transcripts are absent in vegetative cells but expressed during development. triA2-3 is expressed earlier, by 3h, while triA1-2-3 is expressed later, by 9h, and both remain till the end of development. triA2-3 and triA1-2-3 are differentially regulated by different aspects of the extracellular environment which include mode of development of cells (solid substratum versus shaken suspension), the presence of a high level of extracellular cAMP and formation of stable cell-cell contacts. The expression of triA2-3 and triA1-2-3 in triA- cells, one at a time under a constitutive promoter (Actin15 promoter), suggests that the two transcripts have both specific as well as overlapping functions in the cell. The triA2-3 transcript can specifically restore spore forming efficiency and stalk thickness, while the triA1-2-3 transcript can rescue the stream break up defect. Both the transcripts can rescue the sub-terminal position of the sorus, spore shape and spore viability. To address the question of stream break-up during mid to late aggregation in triA- cells, I have looked at the cell adhesion profile of triA- cells and compared it with the wild type (Ax2). triA- cells show transient disaggregation in buffer and a 2h delay in agglutination in presence of buffer with 10mM EDTA. This aberrant cell adhesion profile seen in triA- cells is in accordance with the expression pattern of genes encoding known cell adhesion molecules. triA- cells also overproduce an extracellular factor which significantly decreases the aggregate size of both Ax2 and triA-. The nature of the extracellular factor overproduced by in triA- cells is currently unknown, but it is not the same as cell-counting factor which is overproduced by smlA null cells. To look at the mis-expression of cell type-specific genes, I have monitored the movement of prestalk cells into the prespore region and vice versa in both Ax2 and triA- slugs. My studies show that there is extensive movement of prestalk cells into the prespore region and of prespore cells into the prestalk region in triA- slugs, which is absent in Ax2 slugs. Also, cells that move into the ‘wrong’ region show a change their cell fate (transdifferentiate) appropriate to the new location; whether transdifferentiation precedes or succeeds cell movement is not yet clear. Transdifferentiation is observed to a certain extent in Ax2 slugs, but only after prolonged migration; triA- slugs show enhanced transdifferentiation even in the absence of migration. To find out the possible reason(s) for the formation of a sub-terminal spore mass in the absence of triA, I have checked whether the defect lies in the ability of the prespore cells to rise up the stalk or in the ability of the upper cup (cells present above the spore mass contributed by a subset of prestalk cells and anterior like-cells) to pull the spore mass to the top. To see which of the two reasons could be responsible for the formation of a sub-terminal spore mass in triA-, I carried out transplantation experiments where the anterior one-fourth region of an Ax2 or triA- slug is grafted to the posterior four-fifth region of a triA- or Ax2 slug and the morphology of the fruiting body is observed. My studies show that the sub-terminal position of the spore mass in triA- is not due to an inability of the prespore cells to rise to the top but to a defect in the upper cup. The upper cup in triA- remains motile but is unable to remain attached to the prespore mass during culmination. It detaches, rises up the stalk and is present at the tip of the stalk. Mixing a minority of triA- cells (20%) with an excess of Ax2 (80%) results in an upper up formed by Ax2 alone. In this situation, the wild type upper cup is able to lift the triA- prespore mass to the top. Thus, the presence of triA (a prespore-specific gene) is essential for the proper functioning of the upper cup cells (which belong to the prestalk class) in order to enable prespore cells to ascend to the top of the stalk.

L’adrénomédulline (AM) est un des principaux facteurs de croissance impliqués dans la formations de nouveaux vaisseaux. L’AM est responsable de la formation de jonctions adhérentes stables entre cellules endothéliales vasculaires via le maintien d’un état déphosphorylé du complexe d’adhésion VE-cadhérine/caténines. La phosphorylation de tyrosines est un évènement régulé par un équilibre entre protéine tyrosine kinases et protéine tyrosine phosphatases (PTP). Peu de choses sont encore connues sur le rôle des PTPs dans les voies de signalisation de l’AM au niveau des cellules endothéliales. La SHP2 a été décrite comme étant capable de déphosphoryler le complexe d’adhésion. Son association avec la β-caténine lui permet de contrôler le niveau de phosphorylation du complexe et de maintenir l’association entre VE-cadhérine et caténines. Nous avons ainsi émis l’hypothèse selon laquelle l’AM puisse agir sur la SHP2 permettant ainsi le contrôle de la formation du complexe d’adhésion VE-cadhérine-β-caténine. Nos travaux ont mis en évidence une augmentation de l’activation de la SHP2 induite par l’AM dans les cellules endothéliales entrainant sa localisation au niveau de la membrane et la stabilisation de l'adhésion cellulaire induite par la VE-cadhérine en réduisant le niveau de phosphorylation de cette dernière. Le blocage de la SHP2 entraine des effets opposés avec une inhibition de la déphosphorylation induite par l’AM de la VE-cadhérine sur les tyrosines 731 et 658. En résumé, l’AM régule l’activité de la SHP2 via sa phosphorylation sur la tyrosine 542 ce qui entraine une stabilisation des contacts cellules-cellules via une diminution de la phosphorylation de la VE-cadhérine. / Adrenomedullin (AM) is one of the main factors in the formation of tumor neo-vessels. It's responsible for stable adherent junction formation between vascular endothelial (VE) cells by maintaining VE-cadherin/catenins adhesion complex in a dephosphorylated status. Indeed, AM blockade induces phosphorylation of VE-cadherin in tyrosine 731, which is followed by disruption of VE-cadherin-mediated cell-cell contacts of endothelial cells (ECs), thereby leading to EC adhesion loss and tumor vessels disruption. Tyrosine phosphorylation events are controlled by the balance of activation of protein tyrosine kinases and protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs). Little is known about the role of endogenous PTPs in AM signaling in ECs. SHP2 is capable of dephosphorylating the complex. Its association with β-catenin allows it to control the dephosphorylated steady state of the complex and to maintain the VE-cadherin/β-catenin association. To study the mechanism of AM on the inter-endothelial junction stabilization, we hypothesized that AM may act on SHP2 allowing a control upon formation of VE-cadherin-β-catenin complex. In this study, we found that SHP2 activity is markedly increased by AM. In ECs, AM-induced phospho-SHP2 Y542 activity to localize at the human umbilical vein endothelial cell membrane and stabilizes VE-cadherin-mediated cell-cell adhesions by reducing VE-cadherin tyrosine phosphorylation. SHP2 inhibition causes opposite effects with inhibiting AM-induced dephosphorylation of VE-cadherin at Y731 and Y658. In summary, AM regulates SHP2 activity through phosphorylation of Y542, which stabilizes cell-cell adhesions through reducing tyrosine phosphorylation of VE-cadherin.

La morphogenèse des tissus dans les organismes multicellulaires est très importante pour le développement et certaines pathologies. La morphogenèse tissulaire est dirigée par des forces bio-mécaniques générées par des moteurs moléculaires tels que la myosine et transmis via le cytosquelette et les structures d'adhésion à l'intérieur et entre les cellules. La contractilité de la myosine, souvent en mode oscillatoire, a été étudiée principalement au niveau du domaine apical des cellules épithéliales au cours du développement mais très peu au niveau de leur domaine basal. L'oscillation de la myosine basale est importante pour le contrôle de l'élongation du tissu durant l'oogenèse chez la Drosophile. Bien que la voie Rho1-ROCK-myosin-MBS soit connue pour contrôler l'activité de la myosine, le mécanisme précis de ce contrôle n'a pas été élucidé. Le but de mon projet de thèse est de répondre à deux questions : Quels sont les facteurs en amont de cette voie ? Comment cette voie de signalisation crée et maintient l'oscillation de la myosine ? 1) Contrairement à ce qui est déjà connu, Je me suis intéressé à l'effet des adhésions cellule-cellule et cellule-matrice dans le contrôle des voies de signalisation gouvernant l'oscillation de la myosine basale. Les adhésions cellule-matrice, mais pas les adhésions cellule-cellule, sont positivement corrélées avec l'intensité et la polarité dorso-ventrale de la myosine, indiquant que les adhésions cellule-matrice pourraient être les facteurs en amont de la voie Rho1-myosine. Les adhésions cellule-matrice régulent positivement l'activité de Rho1 près des jonctions et gouvernent les flux de ROCK et myosine à l'intérieur du domaine median, contrôlant ainsi l'élongation du tissu. D'une autre manière, les adhésions cellule-cellule affectent indirectement les flux de ROCK and myosine en contrôlant la distribution subcellulaire de ROCK et du réseau d'actomyosine. L'inhibition des adhésions cellule-cellule, qui a un effet mineur sur l'élongation du tissu, provoque la redistribution des adhésions cellule-matrice et des filaments F-actin entrainant le chargement de la myosine à différentes positions. 2) J'ai montré que l'oscillation de la myosine basale dépend peu de la tension corticale de l'actomyosine : l'inhibition du chargement de la myosine sur les filaments d'actine n'affecte pas le flux de myosine alors qu'il bloque fortement le cycle périodique des contractions/relaxations de la cellule indiquant que l'oscillation est principalement due à une réaction biochimique plutôt qu'à une tension corticale. Au cours de l'oscillation de la myosine, les protéines Rho1 et leur activité sont principalement distribuées et enrichies au niveau et près des jonctions basales, et le contrôle majeur de cette oscillation est le flux des signaux ROCK qui diffusent des jonctions basales au cortex medio-basal. Ce mouvement de ROCK est initié grâce à une interaction transitoire entre ROCK et Rho1 actif au niveau et près des jonctions basales, conduisant ainsi à l'ouverture et activation de la kinase ROCK. Au cours de ce mouvement, l'activation de ROCK permet l'accumulation et l'amplification des signaux ROCK; Cette amplification entraîne la phosphorylation de la myosine, qui ensuite génère la redistribution dynamique de la phosphatase MBS. Enfin, l'enrichissement des signaux MBS arrête les signaux ROCK et myosine. Dans ces deux études, nous avons construit un outil optogénétique confirmant les différentes étapes de l'oscillation de la myosine basale. L'ensemble de ces résultats démontrent que le mécanisme contrôlant l'oscillation de la myosine basale nécessite une réaction biochimique, et met en évidence deux contrôles diffèrent de cette oscillation par les adhésions cellule-cellule et les adhésions cellule-matrice. / Tissue morphogenesis in multicellular organisms is very important in both development and human disease. Tissue morphogenesis is driven by bio-mechanic force that is normally generated by molecular motors such as myosin and transmitted via cytoskeleton and adhesion structures within and between cells. Myosin contractility, often as an oscillatory pattern, has been studied mainly in apical but less in basal domains of epithelial cells during development. Basal myosin oscillation is important in control of tissue elongation during Drosophila oogenesis. Although a signal cascade (Rho1-ROCK-myosin-MBS) has been known to regulate myosin activity, the detailed controlling mechanism is unclear. My project is aimed to address two questions: first, what is the upstream factor of this signal cascade? Second, how does this signal cascade create and maintain basal myosin oscillation? For this first question, I am interested in the effect of cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesion in control of this signal cascade governing basal myosin oscillation. Cell-matrix adhesion (Integrin and Talin), but not cell-cell adhesion (E-cadherin), is positively correlated with the intensity and Dorsal-ventral (DV) axis polarity of basal myosin oscillation, indicating that cell-matrix adhesion might be the upstream control of Rho1-myosin signal cascade. Cell-matrix adhesion positively regulates the Rho1 activity near junction and governs the pulsed ROCK and myosin signals within basal-medial domain, thus strongly controlling tissue elongation. Differently, cell-cell adhesion indirectly affects the ROCK and myosin pulses through controlling the subcellular distribution of ROCK and actomyosin network. Inhibition of cell-cell adhesion results in the redistribution of cell-matrix adhesion and F-actin filaments leading to different position of myosin loading, which plays minor effect on tissue elongation. For the second question, I unraveled that basal myosin oscillation is barely dependent on actomyosin cortical tension: inhibition of myosin loading to F-actin filament seems not to affect basal pulsatile myosin flows, while it strongly blocks the periodic cycle of cell contraction and relaxation at basal surface, thus indicating that oscillation is mainly from biochemical reaction rather than cortical tension. This observation highlighted that biochemical reaction is the main control of oscillation occurrence. During basal myosin oscillation, Rho1 proteins and Rho1 activity are mainly distributed and enriched at and near basal junction and the major control of basal myosin oscillation is the flow movement of oscillatory ROCK signals from basal junction to medio-basal cortex. This ROCK flow movement is initiated from the transient interaction of ROCK with active Rho1 at and near basal junction, thus leading to the opening and activation of ROCK kinase capability. During the membrane-medial flow movement, ROCK kinase activity mediates the accumulation and thus the amplification of ROCK signals; this positive signal amplification turns on the phosphorylation of myosin regulatory light chain (MRLC), which governs the dynamic redistribution of MBS. Finally, enriched MBS signals shut off both ROCK and myosin signals. In both study, an optogenetic tool named as LARIAT was built up in vivo to confirm the various status of basal myosin oscillation. Altogether, these results demonstrated two different controls of basal actomyosin signals by cell-matrix adhesion and cell-cell adhesion, and further demonstrated the underlying mechanism of basal myosin oscillation at the biochemical levels.

La voie de signalisation Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase (Ras/MAPK) occupe un rôle central dans la régulation de différents processus biologiques tels que la croissance, la survie mais aussi la prolifération cellulaire. En réponse à des signaux extracellulaires, cette voie de signalisation mène à l’activation des protéines ERK1/2, impliquées dans l’activation de nombreux substrats cellulaires dont les protéines kinases RSK (p90 ribosomal S6 kinase). Ces protéines kinases sont, entre autres, impliquées dans l’invasion et la migration cellulaire mais les mécanismes responsables de ces phénomènes biologiques restent inconnus à ce jour. Dans mon mémoire, je développe tout d’abord les travaux précédemment réalisés dans notre laboratoire, et identifie la protéine p120-Catenin (p120ctn), un composant majeur des jonctions adhérentes (AJ), comme un nouveau substrat de la voie Ras/MAPK. En utilisant notamment un anticorps phospho-spécificique, nous avons pu démontrer que p120ctn est phosphorylée sur la sérine 320, un nouveau site de phosphorylation, d’une manière dépendante des kinases RSK. D’autre part, nous avons trouvé que la signalisation Ras/MAPK réduit l’interaction entre les protéines p120ctn et N-cadhérine. Ainsi, nos observations suggèrent que l’activation de la voie Ras/MAPK est impliquée dans la diminution de l’adhérence entre cellules par la déstabilisation des AJ. Compte tenu du rôle primordial de la voie de signalisation Ras/MAPK dans le cancer, ce mécanisme nouvellement décrit pourrait contribuer à l’avancement des connaissances sur le développement des cancers dépendents de cette voie de signalisation. / The Ras/MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) signalling pathway is vital in regulating cell growth, survival and proliferation in response to extracellular signals. Positioned downstream in the pathway, the p90 ribosomal S6 kinase (RSK) family regulates cell invasion by weakening cell-cell adhesion, but the mechanisms involved remain elusive. In this thesis, I expand upon previous work performed in our lab and identify p120ctn, a major component of adherens junctions (AJ), as a new substrate of the Ras/MAPK pathway. Using a phospho-specific antibody, we demonstrate that p120ctn is phosphorylated on a new phosphorylation site on S320 upon activation of MAPK signalling in a RSK-dependent manner. Furthermore, we show that Ras/MAPK signaling reduces p120ctn binding to N-cadherin, suggesting a new mechanism by which MAPK activity decreases cell-cell adhesion by destabilizing AJs. Finally, we designed and optimized two individual assays to be used in future experiments examining the effects of Ras/MAPK signalling on AJ function. Taken together, our data identifies RSK as a regulator of p120ctn phosphorylation, and also implicates Ras/MAPK signalling in regulating cell-cell adhesion by destabilizing AJ through p120ctn. Given the role of Ras/MAPK signalling in cancer, this new mechanism may play a role in the development and progression of Ras-driven cancers.

Weanalyze the mechanical properties of three epithelial/mesenchymal cell lines (MCF-10A, MDAMB- 231, MDA-MB-436) that exhibit a shift in E-, N- and P-cadherin levels characteristic of an epithelial−mesenchymal transition associated with processes such as metastasis, to quantify the role of cell cohesion in cell sorting and compartmentalization. Wedevelop a unique set of methods to measure cell–cell adhesiveness, cell stiffness and cell shapes, and compare the results to predictions from cell sorting in mixtures of cell populations.Wefind that the final sorted state is extremely robust among all three cell lines independent of epithelial or mesenchymal state, suggesting that cell sorting may play an important role in organization and boundary formation in tumours.Wefind that surface densities of adhesive molecules do not correlate with measured cell–cell adhesion, but do correlate with cell shapes, cell stiffness and the rate at which cells sort, in accordance with an extended version of the differential adhesion hypothesis (DAH). Surprisingly, theDAHdoes not correctly predict the final sorted state. This suggests that these tissues are not behaving as immiscible fluids, and that dynamical effects such as directional motility, friction and jamming may play an important role in tissue compartmentalization across the epithelial−mesenchymal transition.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Linköping : Linköpings universitet, 2007. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.