Les matériaux cellulaires font l'objet de beaucoup de recherches du fait de leurs remarquables propriétés. Celles-ci proviennent de la structure interne du matériau, dans lequel des inclusions cellulaires sont compactées dans une matrice solide. Comprendre et contrôler l'organisation des cellules dans la phase continue est donc primordial pour pouvoir contrôler les propriétés finales du solide poreux. L'influence des propriétés d'objets sur leur organisation dans un volume a souvent été étudiée pour des systèmes granulaires durs monodisperses, où la friction entre deux grains implique que l'arrangement global sera désorganisé, ou pour des systèmes mous comme les bulles dans les mousses aqueuses, où la très faible friction aux interfaces conduit à un empilement organisé et compact de sphères. Une question importante est de comprendre comment s'empilent des objets déformables présentant de la friction à l'interface. Pour répondre à cela, nous nous intéressons ici à un système modèle de gouttes de PEG (polyéthylèneglycol) dispersées dans une phase continue de PDMS (polydiméthylsiloxane). La coalescence entre les gouttes est empêchée grâce à une réaction à l'interface qui crée un gel de polymère à la surface des gouttes au contact avec le PDMS. Cette peau de polymères induit de la friction et de l'adhésion entre les gouttes. Pour étudier l'influence des propriétés de la peau sur la sédimentation des gouttes, nous caractérisons la fraction volumique finale sous gravité grâce à la tomographie sous rayons X. Nous montrons que la présence de friction et d'adhésion à l'interface induit une organisation non-conventionnelle des gouttes en comparaison avec celle d'émulsions stabilisées par des tensioactifs. Nous examinons ensuite les propriétés mécaniques et adhésives des émulsions solides, composées de gouttes liquides dans une matrice solide, avec un test de probe-tack. Nous étudions l'impact de la taille ainsi que de la densité de gouttes sur l'augmentation des dissipations d'énergie dans le volume. / Macro-cellular polymers are highly searched-for materials thanks to their rich physical properties. These arise from the internal structuration of the material, in which discrete cells of gas or liquid are tightly packed within a continuous polymeric solid. The size and organization of these cells have an important influence on the overall material properties. The influence of the properties of spheres on their final packing morphology has led to numerous studies usually dealing with either hard frictional or soft frictionless grains, which are the two extremes of the spectrum of possible systems. An important question remains as to what happens for systems which are in-between these extremes, i.e. highly deformable grains presenting a frictional surface. To tackle this problem, we work with a model system of ultra-stable emulsions which consist of PEG (polyethyleneglycol) drops which are dispersed in a continuous phase of PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane). Coalescence of the drops is prohibited by a reactive blending approach which creates a solid-like skin around the PEG drops upon contact with the PDMS. This skin creates adhesion and friction between the drops. To study the influence of the skin properties on the sedimentation of the drops, we characterize the final drop packing under gravity using absorption contrast X-Ray. We show that the presence of friction and adhesion at the interface makes the liquid drops pack unconventionally regarding density and organization compared to classic surfactant stabilized emulsions. We then investigated the adhesive properties of the solid emulsions i.e. elastomers containing liquid drops in their substructure, using a probe-tack test. We studied the impact of the drop size and density on the increase of the bulk's dissipations of energy which enhance the adhesive properties of the material.

The asymmetrical arrangement of cellular structure allows for an accurate functional adaptation at all levels of hierarchy, which derives excellent features for the development of new materials. The main objective of introducing a hierarchy into cellular structures is to improve the mechanical behaviour of the material while maintaining its elastic properties. A part of this work is devoted to the literature review related to the lightened cellular polymeric materials with hierarchical cellular structure. The rest is focused on the preparation of PLA based polymer structures using 3D printing, followed by a saturation in CO2 and a foaming in a silicon oil at elevated temperature. Samples were prepared from natural and white PLA filaments. Based on a series of experiments, optimal conditions for the saturation and foaming process were identified. Through 3D printing and foaming, a one-, two- and three-level hierarchy was introduced into the beam-shaped samples and the effect of the internal cell arrangement on the strain response of the material was examined by the means of a mechanical three-point bending test. Increasing the level of the hierarchy led to an increase in material resistance, which resulted in high values of strength and strain energy (toughness) based on the samples density. The best results were achieved by samples with “sandwich” structure with three levels of hierarchy and 30% filling. Despite the shorter plateau, there was a significant increase in strength and strain energy compared to gradient structures. At the same time, the contribution of the polymer structures prepared in this field of research was demonstrated by comparison with the theoretical model.

Cette étude porte sur l'élaboration de matériaux polymères nano-cellulaires via un procédé batch de moussage au CO2. Pour obtenir de tels matériaux, le moussage est provoqué dans des matériaux polymères nano-structurés afin de favoriser la nucléation hétérogène et d'obtenir des taux de nucléation et des densités de cellules élevées. Le moussage de terpolymères ABS et de PMMAs nanostructurés a été étudié, dans le but de produire des mousses nano-cellulaires avec une faible densité (inférieure à 0.3 g.cm-3) et une taille moyenne de cellules inférieure à 100 nm, correspondant aux morphologies de mousses requises pour obtenir des matériaux super isolants thermiquement. Le phénomène de nucléation, et donc la densité de cellules, sont apparus comme dépendant directement de la concentration et de la morphologie des agents nucléants, qui correspondent dans cette étude à des phases polymères immiscibles dispersées. L'élaboration de matériaux nano cellulaires a nécessité la compréhension des mécanismes de croissances de cellules, du rôle du CO2 en tant qu'agent gonflant et plastifiant ainsi que l'optimisation du procédé de moussage. Plus précisément, l'influence du comportement viscoélastique des matériaux polymères ainsi que celle des forces de surface sur la formation de cellules a également été étudié. Il a été montré que la formation de mousse se produisait dans un milieu viscoélastique, avec un comportement variant entre celui d'un solide et d'un liquide viscoélastique, et ce en fonction de la température et de la masses molaire des polymères / This work focuses on the fabrication of nano-cellular polymer materials by means of a CO2 batch foaming process. To produce such materials, the foaming has to be induced in nano-structured polymer materials in order to favour heterogeneous nucleation and thus to obtain high nucleation rate and high cell density. The foaming of ABS terpolymers and nanostructured PMMAs was investigated, with the aim of producing nano-cellular foams with low density (lower than 0.3 g.cm-3) and an average cell size of 100 nm, which corresponds to required foam morphologies for super thermal insulating applications. It has been shown that nucleation, and thus cell density, directly depends on the content and morphology of nucleating agents, corresponding to dispersed polymer immiscible phases. The production of nano-cellular materials required the understanding of cell growth mechanisms, the role of CO2 as blowing agent and plasticiser and process optimisation. Specifically, the influence of viscoelastic behaviour of polymer materials and surface forces on cell formation was also investigated. It was found that the foaming occurred in viscoelastic media, with transitional behaviour between solid and liquid, depending on foaming temperature and molar mass of polymers

Chronic or degenerative diseases affecting the lumbar spine, commonly referred to as low back pain (LPB), are a major cause of dysfunction, pain, and disability worldwide. According to the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) report of 2019, LPB affects over half a billion people, severely limiting their well-being and lifestyle. Unfortunately, these numbers have been steadily increasing over the last decade, with a rise of more than 15%, mainly due to demographic aging of the population, making it a significant socioeconomic global issue. When conservative treatments such as medications, drugs, and injections fail to alleviate the symptoms, surgical interventions become necessary. Spinal surgeries have become increasingly common and account for 40% of the top ten surgical procedures in the United States alone. As a result, the global market for spinal implants and medical orthopedic devices has been growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.0% in the United States. Degenerative disc diseases, herniated intervertebral discs, and spondylolisthesis are among the most common problems requiring implant surgery, with lumbar interbody fusion cages or total disc replacements being the most common options. These surgical techniques often utilize a metal endplate or hollow cage as a load-bearing structure to ensure correct load transmission and biomechanical spinal functionality. Currently, endplates for total disc replacement are produced using subtractive manufacturing techniques from bulk biomedical-graded metal alloys like Ti-6Al-4V. The endplates are inserted between two adjacent vertebral bodies, where bone ingrowth and implant fusion are necessary. However, the elastic properties of bulk metals and bone tissue do not match, resulting in stress-shielding phenomena, implant loosening, or implant subsidence. These complications frequently necessitate surgical revision of the implant, which not only impacts the daily activities of the patients but also has a relevant economic impact. Therefore, researchers are exploring alternative design and manufacturing strategies to develop next-generation prosthetic devices that overcome these challenges. Metal additive manufacturing (MAM), particularly Laser-Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF), has revolutionized the fabrication of specialized components with complex shapes, including architected cellular materials - a novel class of engineered materials with tunable mechanical properties. The biomedical field is a prime example of where lattice application has proved beneficial. MAM provides numerous advantages, including patient-specific customization, a vast design space, and reduced stress shielding. However, issues with structural integrity, lack of AM-specific norms, and the need for fine-tuning process optimizations are still hindering MAM's widespread adoption on the international market. An essential issue that requires resolution is the impact of process-induced flaws on the fatigue behavior of components made of L-PBF lattices. Despite a growing body of scientific literature on the fatigue behavior of lattice unit cells, little attention has been given to the function of fatigue at a millimetric scale, specifically the role of sub-unital lattice elements such as struts and junctions. As fatigue is highly localized, understanding primary fatigue behavior and fracture mechanisms at a strut scale may be critical to addressing the aforementioned problems. Moreover, designing proper prosthetic devices requires fulfilling both biomechanical and biological requirements, leading to a bottleneck in component quality. Proper tuning of osteointegration often requires large porosity and small strut dimensions, approaching the limits of industrial 3D printers. This increases the likelihood of manufacturing lattices with unconnected struts, drosses, parasitic masses, and severe deviations from the nominal as-designed geometries, leading to highly susceptible components under fatigue. To address these challenges, combined approaches with bone tissue engineering may be advantageous. Biopolymers from natural sources, such as silk fibroin and collagen derivatives (i.e., gelatin), are widely used for bone-filler applications due to their exceptional biological properties. These polymers can create highly interconnected biodegradable porous 3D scaffolds suitable for cell differentiation towards an osteogenic phenotype, such as in the form of foams. These foams can be embedded into metal lattice structures, resulting in a hybrid composite device that simultaneously fulfills the load-bearing, fatigue, and osteointegrative requirements that a spinal prosthetic device necessitates. This thesis work covers a range of topics mentioned above. Firstly, an introductory theoretical background is presented in Chapter I, followed by experimental findings which are presented in three different chapters. Chapter II is dedicated to the fatigue behavior of L-PBF Ti-6Al-4V sub-unital lattice elements in the form of miniaturized dog-bone specimens that mimic struts and nodes. This chapter is divided into four sections. The first section investigates the fatigue strength of strut-like specimens based on their building orientations at four different angles with respect to the printing job plate. Morphological features of the miniaturized specimens such as average and minimum cross-section, eccentricity, waviness, and surface texture are correlated with fatigue strength. The role of inner and surface defects, such as lack-of-fusion (LoF) and gas holes, is also considered to explain the main failure mechanisms. The impact of building orientation on the printing quality of the specimens is highlighted, with an increase in surface roughness and defectiveness as the printing angle decreases, resulting in a shorter fatigue life for miniaturized struts. In the second section, the fatigue effect is studied across different fatigue regimes. The role of the mean stress effect is assessed using the Haigh diagram, which reveals an increase in fatigue life moving towards compressive loading regimes. The effect of the printing angle is also investigated, showing different trends according to the different stress ratios, suggesting different fatigue failing mechanisms. The third section introduces strut-junction miniaturized specimens and evaluates their fatigue behavior according to building orientations. Horizontal specimens show an increased fatigue life compared to their thin strut counterparts, and different morphological outcomes are highlighted, including improved surface quality even at lower angles, possibly related to the node acting as an additional supporting structure. The fourth section presents a design-led compensation strategy for sub-unital lattice specimens, aimed at reducing as-designed/as-built deviations. This systematic decrease in geometrical mismatch suggests potential new design strategies for fatigue enhancement. In Chapter III, bone tissue engineering strategies are explored for the design of foam scaffolds as bio-fillers for lattice-based design. The feasibility of the polymer-metal composite is assessed, using an N2O-based gas foaming technique to fabricate silk fibroin and silk fibroin/gelatin porous scaffolds infilled into a cubic L-PBF Ti-6Al-4V lattice structure. The adhesion at the polymer/metal interface is assessed, with simultaneous electrowetting, showing promise for better and more intimate contact on the outermost surface of the lattice struts. A statistical-based analysis of the foam porosity is then carried out, aimed at optimization towards osteointegration improvement. Selected foams are biologically evaluated, revealing good cell adhesion and differentiation towards an osteogenic phenotype. Chapter IV reports on two different strategies for the design of a Ti-6AL-4V L-PBF lattice-based endplate for total disc replacement. The first strategy focuses on homogenized-based topology optimization, designing an octet-truss prosthetic device with a graded structure and a cell size suitable for polymeric infilling. The second strategy aims at optimizing octet-truss lattice components for fatigue, evaluating the optimal building orientation for the specimens. Experimental results reveal an improvement in the fatigue life of three-point bending test specimens, suggesting the potential of the proposed model. In Chapter V, the major takeaways of this thesis work are discussed, highlighting important advancements in understanding the fatigue behavior of lattice structures and the development of novel hybrid strategies for the design of biomedical devices, with a particular focus on spinal orthopedics. Future possible directions for research are also explored.

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Microtruss cellular materials have large internal surface areas and small cross-sectional strut dimensions, permitting surface modification to substantially enhance their mechanical performance. For instance, a ~400% increase in compressive strength with virtually no weight penalty can be induced by a hard anodized Al2O3 ceramic coating of only ~50 µm thickness. The present study seeks the optimal architecture of these composites by exploring three research challenges: architecture and degree of forming are interdependent due to stretch-forming, architecture and the material properties are interdependent due to work-hardening, and ceramic structural coatings add design complexity. Theoretical predictions and architectural optimizations demonstrated a potential weight reduction of ~3% to ~60% through the increase of internal truss angle for both annealed and work-hardened microtruss cores. While further validation is needed, experimental evidence in this study suggested the collapse in ceramic-aluminum microtruss composites could be considered as a mixture of composite strut global buckling and oxide local shell buckling mechanisms.

Microtruss cellular materials have large internal surface areas and small cross-sectional strut dimensions, permitting surface modification to substantially enhance their mechanical performance. For instance, a ~400% increase in compressive strength with virtually no weight penalty can be induced by a hard anodized Al2O3 ceramic coating of only ~50 µm thickness. The present study seeks the optimal architecture of these composites by exploring three research challenges: architecture and degree of forming are interdependent due to stretch-forming, architecture and the material properties are interdependent due to work-hardening, and ceramic structural coatings add design complexity. Theoretical predictions and architectural optimizations demonstrated a potential weight reduction of ~3% to ~60% through the increase of internal truss angle for both annealed and work-hardened microtruss cores. While further validation is needed, experimental evidence in this study suggested the collapse in ceramic-aluminum microtruss composites could be considered as a mixture of composite strut global buckling and oxide local shell buckling mechanisms.

Low-density cellular materials, metallic bodies with gaseous voids, are a unique class of materials that are characterized by their high strength, low mass, good energy absorption characteristics, and good thermal and acoustic insulation properties. In an effort to take advantage of this entire suite of positive mechanical traits, designers are tailoring the cellular mesostructure for multiple design objectives. Unfortunately, existing cellular material manufacturing technologies limit the design space as they are limited to certain part mesostructure, material type, and macrostructure. The opportunity that exists to improve the design of existing products, and the ability to reap the benefits of cellular materials in new applications is the driving force behind this research. As such, the primary research goal of this work is to design, embody, and analyze a manufacturing process that provides a designer the ability to specify the material type, material composition, void morphology, and mesostructure topology for any conceivable part geometry. The accomplishment of this goal is achieved in three phases of research: Design Following a systematic design process and a rigorous selection exercise, a layer-based additive manufacturing process is designed that is capable of meeting the unique requirements of fabricating cellular material geometry. Specifically, metal parts of designed mesostructure are fabricated via three-dimensional printing of metal oxide ceramic powder followed by post-processing in a reducing atmosphere. Embodiment The primary research hypothesis is verified through the use of the designed manufacturing process chain to successfully realize metal parts of designed mesostructure. Modeling & Evaluation The designed manufacturing process is modeled in this final research phase so as to increase understanding of experimental results and to establish a foundation for future analytical modeling research. In addition to an analysis of the physics of primitive creation and an investigation of failure modes during the layered fabrication of thin trusses, build time and cost models are presented in order to verify claims of the process s economic benefits. The main contribution of this research is the embodiment of a novel manner for realizing metal parts of designed mesostructure.

Les travaux de cette thèse s’intéressent au comportement mécanique d’une mousse destinée à l’absorption d’énergie dans une assise de siège pilote. Les méthodes de caractérisation habituelles proposent de solliciter le matériau suivant une seule direction. Cependant, cette caractérisation ne permet pas d’être représentatif des sollicitations lors de l’utilisation de l’assise, qui sont multiaxiales. Cette étude s’intéresse donc à la caractérisation du comportement multiaxial d’une mousse. L’approche originale utilisée est une séparation du comportement en deux contributions: changement de volume (pression-volume) et de forme (distorsion-cisaillement). Un premier moyen d’essais de compression hydrostatique a été développé afin de caractériser le changement de volume. Les résultats mettent en évidence une forte influence de la contribution en changement de volume, lors d’une sollicitation de compression uniaxiale. Un deuxième moyen d’essais a été développé permettant d’appliquer des sollicitations radiales suivant un angle cinématique ϑε, imposant une proportion de volume et de distorsion. Les résultats montrent une forte influence de l’angle cinématique sur les comportements des contributions de changement de volume et de forme. D’autres sollicitations impliquant de la compression et du cisaillement d’une manière séquentielle ont montré une influence du niveau de volume sur le comportement en changement de forme. Enfin, un modèle de simulation 2D par assemblage d’éléments finis 1D, montre une bonne représentation des différents comportements des contributions de changement de volume et de forme obtenus expérimentalement. / This thesis is focused on the mechanical behavior of foam designed to absorb energy in an airplane pilot seat cushion. Usually, these materials are characterized using uniaxial compressive test. Nevertheless, this uniaxial characterization doesn’t represent the real in-use loading of cushion. To complete these data, this work focuses on multiaxial behavior characterization of foam. The analysis of behavior is realized by using a separation into two contributions linked to the volume (pressure-volume) and the shape (distortion-shear) change. A hydrostatic testing system was developed with the aim to characterize the volume change behavior. Results highlight a strong influence of the volume change behavior during an uniaxial compression solicitation. A second testing system was developed allowing to apply radial solicitations following a kinematic angle, which imposes a non-proportional variation of volume and distortion. A kinematic angle influence is observed on the volume and shape change behavior. Other solicitations composed of compression and shear applied in a sequential way, permit to observe a volume influence on the shape change behavior. Finally, a 2D simulation model composed of 1D element composition shows a good representation of the volume and shape changes behavior obtained from experimentation.

<p dir="ltr">The ability to change the shape of aerodynamic surfaces is necessary for modern aircraft, both to provide control while performing maneuvers and to meet the conflicting requirements of various flight conditions such as takeoff/landing and level cruise. These shape changes have traditionally been accomplished through the use of various mechanical devices actuating discrete aerodynamic surfaces, for example ailerons and flaps. Such control surfaces and high-lift devices are generally limited to their specific functionality and create surface discontinuities which increase drag and aircraft noise. Broadly speaking, the design and study of morphing wings typically seeks to improve the performance of aircraft by completing one or more of the following objectives: reducing the drag from discontinuities in the aerodynamic surface of the wing by closing hinge gaps and creating smooth transitions, reducing weight and/or mechanical complexity by integrating mechanism functionality into compliant structures that can bear aerodynamic load and maintain shape adaptability, and providing unique or optimal functionality to the aircraft by allowing it to adjust its aerodynamic shape to meet the needs of various flight conditions with conflicting objectives and constraints.</p><p dir="ltr">The concepts proposed in this work represent potential methods for addressing these objectives. In each case, a compliant structure with multiple stable states is embedded into the wing. Exploiting elastic structural instabilities in this way provides the advantage that a structure can be made relatively stiff while still allowing for large deformations. In the first case, the development of a 3D-printable rib with an embedded bistable element creates a truss-like 2D structure that allows for modification of the airfoil. Switching states of the elements changes their local stiffness, and therefore the global stiffness of the system. By optimizing the topology of the airfoil, a passive deflection of the trailing edge can be leveraged to change the camber to leverage different lift characteristics for varying operating conditions. Primary work on this concept has included the construction of multiple experimental demonstrators for validating the concept through static structural and wind tunnel testing. In the second case, a cellular material has been investigated incorporating a bistable unit cell with a sinusoidal arch. This provides a metamaterial that can exhibit large, reversible deformations with as many stable configurations as there are rows in the honeycomb. This metamaterial is incorporated into a beam-like structure which can serve as a spar for a spanwise morphing wing, providing sufficient bending and torsional stiffness, particularly when utilized at the wing tip. Extending and retracting the wing by switching the states of the honeycomb rows provides a significant change to the wing’s induced drag and wing loading, making it ideal for optimal flight in both loitering and cruising conditions. Contributions to this concept have been the development and characterization of the bistable unit cell and honeycomb, as well as the design and analysis of the metabeam and morphing wing concept.</p>