As vias de sinalização celular por meio de moléculas são um dos principais meios de controle funcional de um organismo. O entendimento das funções de moléculas sinalizadoras facilita a compreensão das vias metabólicas de um organismo, assim possibilitando uma melhor compreensão de vários eventos biológicos e também de várias doenças. A sinalização pelo ácido retinóico (AR), e seus derivados, é responsável pelo controle de várias funções, por exemplo: crescimento celular, diferenciação celular, formação da retina, desenvolvimento cardíaco e também relacionado a várias patologias como diabetes, obesidades, cânceres, e doenças cardiovasculares. A ação do ácido retinóico é controlada em dois níveis: no metabolismo de síntese/degradação e na sua utilização na sinalização para a expressão gênica. A maquinaria que controla o metabolismo inclui as enzimas de síntese do AR (aldeído desidrogenase ALDH) e as enzimas de degradação do AR (Cyp26), que controlam a distribuição espaço-temporal do AR durante a embriogênese. As ALDHs são enzimas NAD(P)+ dependentes, que oxidam uma ampla gama de aldeídos para os seus correspondentes ácidos carboxílicos, sendo ALDH1A2 a principal enzima na transformação de retinal em ácido retinóico. A maquinaria da sinalização celular por AR contém os receptores nucleares controlados por AR (RARs) que estão envolvidos com o controle da transcrição gênica. Os mecanismos de controle de expressão mais comuns são os que ocorrem na fase transcricional. Um desses mecanismos envolve proteínas que se ligam às regiões promotoras de transcrição, representadas por trechos de DNA que geralmente estão localizados próximo à região de início da transcrição, mas que também podem estar a centenas ou até milhares de pares de bases desse início. Essas proteínas modulam a maquinaria transcricional, podendo ativá-la ou inibi-la. A associação de várias técnicas como a biologia molecular, bioinformática, filogenia, análises estruturais de biomoléculas, mecânica molecular e métodos termodinâmicos tem se mostrado uma poderosa abordagem para compreensão de sistemas biológicos simplificando e agilizando o desenvolvimento do conhecimento científico. Nessa direção, esse estudo desenvolveu duas análises: a primeira estudando a evolução das funções das enzimas ALDH, utilizando-se de técnicas de genômica combinatória, filogenia, bioinformática, estrutura de biomoléculas e de biologia do desenvolvimento, tentando compreender o modo como as ALDHs, que apresentam as seqüências de aminoácidos bastante similares, puderam divergir para gerar funções diversas como a destoxificação e a sinalização. Para este estudo foram analisados os genomas de 487 organismos em busca de seqüências de ALDHs e também o genoma do organismo modelo Branchiostoma floridae. Foram obtidas 190 seqüências que foram utilizadas em uma análise filogenética para tentar compreender a função primordial e também para definir grupos de aminoácidos candidatos a marcadores das diferentes famílias de ALDHs. Essas 190 seqüências também foram modeladas estruturalmente e analisada a forma e o volume do canal onde se aloja o aldeído a ser oxidado. A partir dessas informações foi possível prever que as ALDHs passaram das funções ancestrais de controle do padrão corporal para algo mais abrangente como funções protetoras. A segunda análise, utilizando-se das estruturas tridimensionais dos fatores de transcrição ligados ao DNA em diferentes posições e submetendo esses complexos a processos de mecânica molecular, cálculos termodinâmicos e análises das ligações de hidrogênio para tentar prever os mais prováveis sítios de interação entre os receptores e o DNA. O modelo escolhido para essa análise foram os fatores de transcrição regulados por ácido retinóico o RAR e RXR utilizando a região promotora do gene RARE-2 para avaliar as mais prováveis regiões de ligação desses fatores. Para esse estudo foram construídos 71 complexos proteína-DNA que foram submetidos a processos de mecânica molecular e cálculos termodinâmicos. A partir dessas informações foi possível prever uma região de maior afinidade entre o fator de transcrição e o DNA. As análises de ligações de hidrogênio possibilitaram definir exatamente a região de interação entre os fatores de transcrição e o DNA, e também descrever as interações moleculares responsáveis pela especificidade da interação. / Cellular signaling paths through molecules are one of the main processes of functional control of an organism. The comprehension of signaling molecules functions enables one to understand the metabolic pathways of an organism, along with related biological events and several diseases. The signaling through retinoic acid (RA) and its secondary products is responsible for controlling several functions, such as cellular growth and differentiation, retinas formation and cardio development, and is also related to several pathologies such as diabetes, obesity, cancers and cardiovascular disorders. There are two levels of control of retinoic acid activity: synthesis/degradation metabolism and its use in gene expression signaling. The machinery that controls the metabolism includes RAs synthesis (aldehyde dehydrogenase ALDH) and degradation (Cyp26) enzymes, which control the space-temporal distribution of RA during the embryogenesis. The ALDHs are NAD(P)+ dependent enzymes that oxidize many types of aldehydes into the related carboxylic acids, being the ALDH1A2 the main enzyme involved in the process of transformation of retinal into retinoic acid. The machinery of cellular signaling through RA contains the nuclear receptors controlled by RA (RARs) that are involved in the control of gene transcription. The most common mechanisms of expression control are the ones that occur during the transcriptional phase. One of these mechanisms involves proteins that bind to the transcription promoter regions, represented by DNA sequences that are usually located close to the region where the transcription starts, but can also be hundreds or thousands of base pairs apart from the starting point. These proteins modulate the transcriptional machinery, being responsible for both its activation and inhibition. The association of several techniques as molecular biology, bioinformatics, phylogeny, structural analysis of biomolecules, molecular mechanics and thermodynamic methods has been shown as a powerful tool for the understanding of biological systems, simplifying and speeding up the production of related scientific knowledge. Facing this direction, the present study developed two analyses. The first one studied the evolution of ALDH enzymes functions, using the techniques of combinatory genomic, phylogeny, bioinformatics, structure of biomolecules and developmental biology, in the attempt of understanding how the ALDHs could diverge and acquire different functions as detoxification and signaling, despite the fact that they have very similar aminoacid sequences. For this study, ALDHs sequences were searched for in the genome of 487 organisms plus the model organisms, Branchiostoma floridae. All 190 sequences obtained were used in a phylogenetic analysis, in the attempt of understanding the primordial function of the enzyme and defining possible groups of conserved aminoacids in the different families of ADLHs. These 190 sequences were also structurally modeled and the shape and volume of the channel where the aldehyde is placed to be oxidized were analyzed. Based on this information, it became possible to predict that the ALDHs moved from ancestral functions of corporal pattern control to a wider spectrum of protection functions. For the second analysis we submitted the complex formed by tridimensional structures of the transcriptional factors bond to DNA in different positions to processes of molecular mechanics, thermodynamic calculi and analysis of the hydrogen bonds, in order to predict the most probable sites of interaction between the receptors and the DNA. The model chosen for this analysis were the transcription factors regulated by retinoic acid, RAR and RXR, using the promoter region of the gene RARE-2 to assay the most probable binding regions of these factors. For this study, 71 protein-DNA complexes were built and submitted to processes of molecular mechanics and thermodynamic calculi. Based on the resulting data, it became possible to predict a region of greater affinity between the transcription factor and the DNA. The analyses of hydrogen bonds enabled us to define the exact region where the interaction between the transcription factor and the DNA takes place and also enabled us to describe the molecular interactions responsible for the specificity of this interaction.

No description available.

Les polymorphonucléaires neutrophiles (PMNs) représentent une arme primordiale dans la défense contre divers agents pathogènes; notamment les bactéries, les champignons, les cellules tumorales de même que les cellules infectées par des virus. Cependant, certaines pathologies reliées à l’inflammation chronique soulèvent l’implication des neutrophiles notamment dans l’arthrite rhumatoïde. La réponse inflammatoire persistante générée par l’activation et la survie des neutrophiles engendre une destruction des tissus environnants suite à la sécrétion non contrôlée de leurs produits cytotoxiques. Même si l’activation chronique des neutrophiles est néfaste dans plusieurs pathologies, elle pourrait s’avérer un bon outil en cas de neutropénie, comme c’est souvent le cas les patients ayant reçu des traitements de chimiothérapie. Ce projet fait suite aux travaux doctoraux de Lagraoui (1999). Il vise à identifier le(s) facteur(s) du liquide synovial qui augmente la survie des neutrophiles ainsi que le mécanisme d’action impliqué dans ce processus. Similairement au facteur semi-pur isolés par Lagraoui (1999), le milieu conditionné concentré (MCC) augmente la survie des PMNs de 75% (39% ± 9.5 vs 68% ± 2.5, p<0.01). Suivant le séquençage du MCC parallèlement au facteur semi-pur actif, deux protéines ont été identifiées à la fois dans le MCC et dans le facteur semi-pur soient : l’albumine et la fétuine. Notre projet vise donc à comparer les effets de l’albumine et de la fétuine à ceux du GM-CSF dans l’optique d’une thérapie alternative au GM-CSF en tant qu’adjuvant de chimiothérapie. La présence d’albumine, de fétuine ou de GM-CSF chez les PMNs incubés 24 heures avec la Mutamycin® induit une diminution du nombre de cellules en apoptose par rapport à la Mutamycin® (Ctrl : 43% ± 10; A : 74% ± 3; F : (82% ± 6 et GM : 74% ± 7; p<0.01). L’effet de l’albumine dépend de la voie de la kinase PI3 mais également celle la kinase ERK, alors que celle de la fétuine dépend de la kinase PI3. Similairement l’EPO, l’albumine et la fétuine supporte la différentiation des HSCs en précurseurs érythrocytaires de type BFU-E. Dans un modèle murin de chiomioprotection, l’albumine augmente la concentration cellulaire rapport au groupe contrôle des leukocytes de la rate (66 ±8 x106c/ml vs 81 ±16 x106c/ml) et du sang (3.6 ±0.4 x106c/ml vs 5.7 ±2.3 x106c/ml). Donc, in vitro, l’albumine et la fétuine sont comparables au GM-CSF au niveau fonctionalité et mécansimes d’action. Cependant, vu leur manque de spécificité, l’application thérapeutique en tant qu’adjuvant de chiomiothérapie de l’albumine et la fétuine est peu prometteuse. Par contre, les maladies dégénératives et les évènements ischémiques pourraient s’avérer de bonnes cibles thérapeutiques, principalement pour l’albumine. / Circulating polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) possess a short half-life and are constantly renewed by the bone marrow to ensure the first-line of defense. Therefore, homeostasis must be maintained through a well-regulated process of apoptosis. Survival of PMN can be regulated by several cytokines as well as conditioned media (CM). Although PMN are crucial for protection against microorganisms, activated neutrophils can lead to severe tissue damage in diseases characterized by chronic inflammation. Indeed, in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), activated PMN contribute to tissue damage by releasing a number of destructive agents. On the other hand, chronic activation of PMN could prevent opportunistic infections present in immunosuppressed patients. This project addresses the isolation and mechanism of action of synovial liquid components on the survival of neutrophils based on previous work (Lagraoui, 1999). Following tangential flow filtration (MW cut off: 30 and 50 kDa), concentrated CM enhanced the viability (75%) of 24-hour cultured human neutrophils isolated from peripheral blood of healthy volunteers (39% ± 9.5 vs 68% ± 2.5, p<0.01) as seen in Lagraoui (1999) previous work. N-terminal protein sequence analysis of the concentrated CM and fractionated conditioned media from previous work revealed 2 known proteins contained in both analysis: albumin, and fetuin. In view of the importance of neutrophiles in immune defense, we compared the benefits of albumin and fetuin to those of granulocytes macrophages-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), a growth factor used as an adjunct to cancer chemotherapy. Albumin and fetuin were tested by the AnnexinV-FITC/7-AAD method and displayed an inhibition of neutrophil apoptosis of two to three folds relative to control value. Moreover, albumin (A : 200μM) and fetuin (F : 200μM) rescue human PMN from mutamycin-induced apoptosis, comparable to GM-CSF (GM : 10ng/ml); (Ctrl : 43% ± 10; A : 74% ± 3; F : (82% ± 6 et GM : 74% ± 7; p<0.01). Albumin also induces cellular signaling pathways activation via PI3-K and ERK, whereas fetuin acts through PI3-K pathway only. They induce the differentiation of HSCs into erythrocytes progenitors BFU-E. In immunosuppressed mice, albumin protects white blood cells depletion induced by cytotoxic agent from spleen and blood. Considering all the benefits of albumin and fetuin, their targeting as an adjunct to cancer chemotherapy could be disappointing in view of their lack of specificity. On the other hand, their multiple benefits could have a major impact on neurodegenerative disorders and ischemic events.

Les polymorphonucléaires neutrophiles (PMNs) représentent une arme primordiale dans la défense contre divers agents pathogènes; notamment les bactéries, les champignons, les cellules tumorales de même que les cellules infectées par des virus. Cependant, certaines pathologies reliées à l’inflammation chronique soulèvent l’implication des neutrophiles notamment dans l’arthrite rhumatoïde. La réponse inflammatoire persistante générée par l’activation et la survie des neutrophiles engendre une destruction des tissus environnants suite à la sécrétion non contrôlée de leurs produits cytotoxiques. Même si l’activation chronique des neutrophiles est néfaste dans plusieurs pathologies, elle pourrait s’avérer un bon outil en cas de neutropénie, comme c’est souvent le cas les patients ayant reçu des traitements de chimiothérapie. Ce projet fait suite aux travaux doctoraux de Lagraoui (1999). Il vise à identifier le(s) facteur(s) du liquide synovial qui augmente la survie des neutrophiles ainsi que le mécanisme d’action impliqué dans ce processus. Similairement au facteur semi-pur isolés par Lagraoui (1999), le milieu conditionné concentré (MCC) augmente la survie des PMNs de 75% (39% ± 9.5 vs 68% ± 2.5, p<0.01). Suivant le séquençage du MCC parallèlement au facteur semi-pur actif, deux protéines ont été identifiées à la fois dans le MCC et dans le facteur semi-pur soient : l’albumine et la fétuine. Notre projet vise donc à comparer les effets de l’albumine et de la fétuine à ceux du GM-CSF dans l’optique d’une thérapie alternative au GM-CSF en tant qu’adjuvant de chimiothérapie. La présence d’albumine, de fétuine ou de GM-CSF chez les PMNs incubés 24 heures avec la Mutamycin® induit une diminution du nombre de cellules en apoptose par rapport à la Mutamycin® (Ctrl : 43% ± 10; A : 74% ± 3; F : (82% ± 6 et GM : 74% ± 7; p<0.01). L’effet de l’albumine dépend de la voie de la kinase PI3 mais également celle la kinase ERK, alors que celle de la fétuine dépend de la kinase PI3. Similairement l’EPO, l’albumine et la fétuine supporte la différentiation des HSCs en précurseurs érythrocytaires de type BFU-E. Dans un modèle murin de chiomioprotection, l’albumine augmente la concentration cellulaire rapport au groupe contrôle des leukocytes de la rate (66 ±8 x106c/ml vs 81 ±16 x106c/ml) et du sang (3.6 ±0.4 x106c/ml vs 5.7 ±2.3 x106c/ml). Donc, in vitro, l’albumine et la fétuine sont comparables au GM-CSF au niveau fonctionalité et mécansimes d’action. Cependant, vu leur manque de spécificité, l’application thérapeutique en tant qu’adjuvant de chiomiothérapie de l’albumine et la fétuine est peu prometteuse. Par contre, les maladies dégénératives et les évènements ischémiques pourraient s’avérer de bonnes cibles thérapeutiques, principalement pour l’albumine. / Circulating polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) possess a short half-life and are constantly renewed by the bone marrow to ensure the first-line of defense. Therefore, homeostasis must be maintained through a well-regulated process of apoptosis. Survival of PMN can be regulated by several cytokines as well as conditioned media (CM). Although PMN are crucial for protection against microorganisms, activated neutrophils can lead to severe tissue damage in diseases characterized by chronic inflammation. Indeed, in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), activated PMN contribute to tissue damage by releasing a number of destructive agents. On the other hand, chronic activation of PMN could prevent opportunistic infections present in immunosuppressed patients. This project addresses the isolation and mechanism of action of synovial liquid components on the survival of neutrophils based on previous work (Lagraoui, 1999). Following tangential flow filtration (MW cut off: 30 and 50 kDa), concentrated CM enhanced the viability (75%) of 24-hour cultured human neutrophils isolated from peripheral blood of healthy volunteers (39% ± 9.5 vs 68% ± 2.5, p<0.01) as seen in Lagraoui (1999) previous work. N-terminal protein sequence analysis of the concentrated CM and fractionated conditioned media from previous work revealed 2 known proteins contained in both analysis: albumin, and fetuin. In view of the importance of neutrophiles in immune defense, we compared the benefits of albumin and fetuin to those of granulocytes macrophages-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), a growth factor used as an adjunct to cancer chemotherapy. Albumin and fetuin were tested by the AnnexinV-FITC/7-AAD method and displayed an inhibition of neutrophil apoptosis of two to three folds relative to control value. Moreover, albumin (A : 200μM) and fetuin (F : 200μM) rescue human PMN from mutamycin-induced apoptosis, comparable to GM-CSF (GM : 10ng/ml); (Ctrl : 43% ± 10; A : 74% ± 3; F : (82% ± 6 et GM : 74% ± 7; p<0.01). Albumin also induces cellular signaling pathways activation via PI3-K and ERK, whereas fetuin acts through PI3-K pathway only. They induce the differentiation of HSCs into erythrocytes progenitors BFU-E. In immunosuppressed mice, albumin protects white blood cells depletion induced by cytotoxic agent from spleen and blood. Considering all the benefits of albumin and fetuin, their targeting as an adjunct to cancer chemotherapy could be disappointing in view of their lack of specificity. On the other hand, their multiple benefits could have a major impact on neurodegenerative disorders and ischemic events.

Information spielt in der Natur eine zentrale Rolle. Als intrinsischer Teil des genetischen Codes ist sie das Grundgerüst jeder Struktur und ihrer Entwicklung. Im Speziellen dient sie auch Organismen, ihre Umgebung wahrzunehmen und sich daran anzupassen. Die Grundvoraussetzung dafür ist, dass sie Information ihrer Umgebung sowohl messen als auch interpretieren können, wozu Zellen komplexe Signaltransduktionswege entwickelt haben. In dieser Arbeit konzentrieren wir uns auf Signalprozesse in S.cerevisiae die von osmotischem Stress (High Osmolarity Glycerol (HOG) Signalweg) und der Stimulation mit α-Faktor (Pheromon Signalweg) angesprochen werden. Wir wenden stochastische Modelle an, die das intrinsische Rauschen biologischer Prozesse darstellen können, um verstehen zu können wie Signalwege die ihnen zur Verfügung stehende Information umsetzen. Informationsübertragung wird dabei mit einem Ansatz aus Shannons Informationstheorie gemessen, indem wir sie als einen Kanal in diesem Sinne auffassen. Wir verwenden das Maß der Kanalkapazität, um die Genauigkeit des Phosphorelays einschränken zu können. In diesem Modell, simuliert mit dem Gillespie Algorithmus, können wir durch die Analyse des Signalverhaltens den Parameterraum zusätzlich stark einschränken. Eine weitere Herangehensweise der Signalverarbeitung beschäftigt sich mit dem “Crosstalk” zwischen HOG und Pheromon Signalweg. Wir zeigen, dass die Kontrolle der Signalspezifizität vor allem bei Scaffold-Proteinen liegt, die Komponenten der Signalkaskade binden. Diese konservierten Motive zellulärer Signaltransduktion besitzen eine geeignete Struktur, um Information getreu übertragen zu können. Im letzten Teil der Arbeit untersuchen wir potentielle Gründe für die evolutionäre Selektion von Scaffolds. Wir zeigen, dass ihnen bereits durch die Struktur des Mechanismus möglich ist, Informationsgenauigkeit zu verbessern und einer verteilten Informationsweiterleitung sowohl dadurch als auch durch ihre Robustheit überlegen sind. / Information plays a ubiquitous role in nature. It provides the basis for structure and development, as it is inherent part of the genetic code. It also enables organisms to make sense of their environments and react accordingly. For this, a cellular interpretation of information is needed. Cells have developed sophisticated signaling mechanisms to fulfill this task and integrate many different external cues with their help. Here we focus on signaling that senses osmotic stress (High Osmolarity Glycerol (HOG) pathway) as well as α-factor stimulation (pheromone pathway) in S.cerevisiae. We employ stochastic modeling to simulates the inherent noisy nature of biological processes to assess how systems process the information they receive. This information transmission is evaluated with an information theoretic approach by interpreting signal transduction as a transmission channel in the sense of Shannon. We use channel capacity to both constrain as well as quantify the fidelity in the phosphorelay system of the HOG pathway. In this model, simulated with the Gillespie Algorithm, the analysis of signaling behavior allows us to constrain the possible parameter sets for the system severely. A further approach to signal processing is concerned with the mechanisms that conduct crosstalk between the HOG and the pheromone pathway. We find that the control for signal specificity lies especially with the scaffold proteins that tether signaling components and facilitate signaling by trans-location to the membrane and shielding against miss-activation. As conserved motifs of cellular signal transmission, these scaffold proteins show a particularly well suited structure for accurate information transmission. In the last part of this thesis, we examine the potential reasons for an evolutionary selection of the scaffolding structure. We show that due to its structure, scaffolds are increasing information transmission fidelity and outperform a distributed signal in this regard.

The pathogenesis of oral submucous fibrosis (OSMF) is due to a complex interplay between the production and degradation of extracellular matrix (ECM) protein components. In tissue fibrosis, there is a net accumulation of collagen as a result of an imbalance between enhanced production, deposition and impaired degradation of ECM components. OSMF is a chronic inflammatory condition of the oral cavity and regulation of a number of pro-inflammatory and fibrogenic cytokines such as interleukine-1, -6 and -8 isoforms, TGF-β, PDGF, bFGF, IFN-γ and TNF-α has been reported in OSMF tissues. The expression of these growth factors has a bearing on the epithelial changes as well as proliferation and differentiation of oral fibroblasts into ECM protein producing myofibroblast cells. One key modulator of fibrosis in several organs has been TGF-β. Overproduction of TGF-β mRNA and protein has been reported in several fibrotic disorders including that of skin, lungs, liver, kidney and heart. This is mainly due to stimulation of ECM genes by TGF-β. Although there have been few reports suggesting the over production of TGF-β in OSMF tissues, the specific isoforms involved or the mechanisms are poorly understood. Areca nut components, especially arecoline have been implicated in the pathophysiology of OSMF. Few reports indicate the involvement of arecoline in the regulation of collagen production and activity of collagenases and their inhibitors in oral fibroblast cells. Moreover, the alkaloid is involved in initiating epithelial inflammation by inducing COX-2, prostaglandin E2, IL-1α, IL-6 and IL-8 in KB oral carcinoma cells and oral fibroblast cells. These and other reports strongly suggest that changes in gene expression mediated by Arecoline may be central to the progression of OSMF. Not much is known about arecoline-mediated cellular signaling events except for few recent reports that suggest the activation of MAPK pathways. In neuronal and colonic smooth muscle cells of mouse, rat and rabbit, the actions of Arecoline have been reported to be through the activation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Direct binding of arecoline to human M1, 2 and 3 muscarinic receptor isoforms have been shown in brain tissues. Stimulation of these receptors alters the intracellular levels of Ca+2 and cAMP, which are important second messengers. The cholinergic potential of arecoline may be important for their roles in arecoline-mediated signaling events. The expression of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors has been reported in several cell types besides neuronal and excitatory cells. Although several gene expression changes have been reported following Arecoline treatment of a variety of cells, the mechanism of such regulations is not established. Hence in order to understand the role of arecoline in OSMF disease process, we undertook studies that provide insights into arecoline action in epithelial and fibroblast cells and possible molecular mechanisms. The objectives are to study: 1. The role of arecoline in cellular proliferation, cell-cycle regulation and apoptosis in human normal keratinocytes. 2. Mechanism of regulation of gene expression by arecoline in normal keratinocytes. 3. Mechanism of regulation of gene expression by arecoline in human normal oral fibroblasts. In order to achieve the above objectives, a human keratinocyte cell line, HaCaT and an oral periodontal fibroblast cell line (PDC) were utilized. The cells were treated with arecoline and a variety of assays including RT-PCR analysis of mRNA of several genes, phosphorylation status of MAPK pathway intermediates, cell cycle analysis and other cellular and molecular methods have been employed. Following arecoline treatment, there is induction of oxidative stress, growth arrest and epithelial cell death. Since actions of TGF-β are central to most fibrotic disorders and arecoline has been implicated in OSMF, it is hypothesized that arecoline may influence fibrosis via TGF-β pathway. Towards this, several TGF-β target genes that may have a possible role in fibrosis have been studied in arecoline treated epithelial and fibroblast cells. Since arecoline mediated oxidative stress has been reported, the regulation of genes that are involved in stress response pathway have been studied for induction by arecoline in epithelial cells. The results presented in this thesis suggest the up regulation of oxidative stress-responsive genes in HaCaT cells including HOX-1, FTL, G6PD, GCLC and GRD in HaCaT cells. Oxidative stress is a major inducer of inflammatory response in the epithelial tissues. The expression of IL-1α, an important inflammatory cytokine is induced by arecoline in HaCaT cells in response to oxidative stress via the activation of p38 MAPK pathway. Interestingly, activation of MAPK pathways by arecoline is involved in the regulation of common target genes of arecoline and TGF-β and also in the induction of TGF-β−responsive promoter reporter construct, p3TP-lux activity in HaCaT cells. Due to the involvement of TGF-β in fibrosis, regulation of TGF-β pathway genes by arecoline has been studied both in HaCaT and PDC cells. In HaCaT cells, arecoline induces the expression of TGF-β2 mRNA while TβRII expression is down regulated. The expression of the rest of TGF-β/SMAD pathway genes including TGF-β1, β3, TβRI, SMAD1, 2, 3, 4 and 7 are not affected by arecoline in HaCaT cells. Over expression of TGF-β2 is also observed in most of the OSMF tissues compared to normal oral tissues. However, in normal oral fibroblast cells, we observed that the TGF-β/SMAD pathway genes are not regulated by arecoline. These results suggest the possible involvement of arecoline-mediated induction of TGF-β2 in epithelial cells in OSMF disease development. We investigated the signaling pathways involved in the regulation of TGF-β2 and found that stimulation of M3 muscarinic receptor by arecoline leads to the induction of TGF-β2 expression in HaCaT cells via PKC pathway. TGM-2 is an important TGF-β target gene involved in the cross linking of ECM proteins. Arecoline-mediated induction of TGM2 mRNA and transglutaminase activity are observed in oral fibroblast cells, PDC. The induction of TGM-2 was found to be independent of oxidative stress and TGF-β, but dependent on muscarinic acid receptor activation by arecoline and involves cytosolic cAMP. When tested in OSMF tissues, there was an increased expression of TGF-β2, TSP1 and TGM2 as compared to normal tissues suggesting a possible role of these genes in arecoline-mediated progression of OSMF. Interleukin-8 (IL-8), which is involved in inflammation has been reported to be regulated by TGF-β in a cell type specific manner. In several cell types including human endometrial stromal cells, LnCaP (prostate cancer cells), human retinal pigment epithelial cells and rat lung alveolar epithelial (LM5) cells etc., TGF-β up regulates the expression of IL-8 mRNA. Arecoline was found to down regulate IL-8 expression in PDC cells as measured by RT-PCR. Interestingly, the presence of serum along with arecoline induces the expression of IL-8 in PDC cells suggesting the modulation of arecoline-mediated gene regulation by a serum activated signaling pathway. Intriguingly, arecoline treatment led to down regulation of collagens in PDC cells. However, collagen genes are induced in PDC cells in the presence of HaCaT spent medium by arecoline suggesting a role for factor(s) secreted by epithelial cells in the regulation of collagen genes by arecoline. This factor could be an isoform of TGF-β as shown by blocking the induction of collagens by the TGF-β inhibitor, βLAP. Taken together, all these results indicate the ability of arecoline to cause fibrosis in a tissue environment where both epithelial and fibroblasts respond to arecoline and mutually contribute to the disease manifestation. Major conclusions from this study includes, 1] cell death in epithelial cells due to oxidative stress following arecoline treatment, 2] regulation of gene expression by arecoline involves MAPK, PKC pathways, 3] muscarinic acid receptor and oxidative stress are also important for regulation gene expression by arecoline. The most important inference from this study is the possible paracrine influence of TGF-β isoforms secreted by epithelial cells on the oral fibroblasts in determining the progression of OSMF. In summary, in this thesis, an attempt has been made to study the molecular mechanisms and role of arecoline, an alkaloid in conferring gene expression changes that may lead to the initiation and progression of oral sub mucous fibrosis.