A química de 1,2-dioxetanos tem sido alvo de estudos intensivos desde sua primeira síntese há aproximadamente 25 anos atrás. Tais moléculas de alto conteúdo energético, quando termolisadas, geram dois compostos carbonílicos, um deles podendo ser formado em um estado eletronicamente excitado. Na termólise de dioxetanos contendo substituintes \"simples\", são formadas principalmente espécies excitadas triplete. Entretanto, quando o anel peroxídico contém substituintes doadores de elétrons, tais compostos tornam-se mais lábeis, sofrendo decomposição segundo o mecanismo de transferência de elétron denominado \"Chemically Initiated Electron Exchange Luminescence\" (CIEEL). Este trabalho relata a síntese e as propriedades quimiluminescentes dos dioxetanos I a IV. O estudo da decomposição em presença de íons fluoreto nos permite distinguir entre catálise por transferência de elétron através da ligação (dioxetano II) e através do espaço (dioxetano IV). Observação: Ilustrações de dioxetanos I-IV disponíveis no resumo em PDF Na síntese de I a IV foi utilizado o clássico método de Kopecky para a obtenção de dioxetanos a partir das respectivas olefinas, via β-bromo-hidroperóxidos. Os 1,2-dioxetanos foram purificados através de cromatografia em coluna a baixas temperaturas e caracterizados pelos dados espectroscópicos (1H-NMR e 13C-NMR). A decomposição unimolecular de I-IV forneceu apenas os produtos de clivagem esperados, os correspondentes compostos carbonílicos. Para I e II, foi observada emissão direta com um máximo em 412 nm, enquanto para III e IV foi necessária a utilização de sensibilizadores para a detecção e a quantificação de compostos carbonílicos eletronicamente excitados. Os parâmetros de ativação para a termólise de I-IV, determinados em tolueno a partir de gráficos de Eyring e de Arrhenius numa faixa de temperaturas de 65 a 80 ºC, apresentaram valores muito semelhantes aos normalmente observados na decomposição unimolecular de dioxetanos trissubstituídos. Além disso, foram observados altos rendimentos quânticos de produtos carbonílicos excitados triplete, similar àqueles obtidos para 1,2-dioxetanos trissubstituídos contendo substituintes alquila e arila. Para a determinação de rendimentos quânticos utilizou-se 9,10-difenilantraceno (DPA), para estados excitados singlete e 9,10-dibromoantraceno (DBA), no caso dos tripletes. Em presença de íons fluoreto, as constantes de velocidade para a decomposição de II e IV são aproximadamente quatro ordens de grandeza superiores àquelas observadas para a decomposição unimolecular a temperatura ambiente: os tempos de meia-vida (t1/2) destes dioxetanos (81 e 24h, respectivamente), são reduzidos a aproximadamente 15s. Além disso, observa-se forte emissão em 560 nm devido à formação preferencial de estados excitados singlete. Os rendimentos quânticos singlete para a decomposição catalisada de II e IV, determinados através de medidas de emissão direta, foram 100 e 1,0 %, respectivamente. Os parâmetros de ativação determinados para as reações de decomposição catalisadas por fluoreto são consideravelmente mais baixos do que aqueles obtidos para as de decomposição unimolecular. Para explicar os resultados obtidos, propusemos um mecanismo detalhado, baseado no esquema mecanístico CIEEL. A primeira transferência de elétron do fenolato gerado para o anel peroxídico ocorre com a mesma eficiência no caso de II e IV. Porém, a diferença observada entre os rendimentos quânticos singlete (Φs) indica que, no caso de IV, a segunda transferência de elétron ocorre com eficiência consideravelmente mais baixa. A observação de catálise na decomposição de IV constitui o primeiro exemplo de mecanismo CIEEL intramolecular em 1,2-dioxetanos iniciado pela transferência de elétron de um doador que não está diretamente ligado ao anel peroxídico (transferência de elétrons através do espaço). Além disso, como os parâmetros de quimiluminescência, especificamente os rendimentos quânticos obtidos para II e IV, podem ser explicados com base na proposta mecanística CIEEL, este trabalho pode ser considerado como mais uma evidência para a validade deste polêmico mecanismo. / The generation of visible light by a living organism or by a chemical reaction is a sufficiently rare and unusual event to attract the interest of biologists, biochemists and chemists. The chemiluminescent reaction most extensively investigated over the past 25 years, is the thermolysis of 1,2-dioxetanes. These high energy molecules generate mainly triplet excited carbonyl compounds on thermal decomposition, except when the dioxetane ring bears electron-donating substituents. In the latter case, such labile dioxetanes follow an intramolecular electron transfer mechanism, probably via the CIEEL (Chemically Initiated Electron Exchange Luminescence) pathway. This work reports our results on the synthesis and the chemiluminescence properties of the dioxetanes I to IV. These compounds serve as models to distinguish between resonance electron transfer (dioxetane II) and through space electron transfer (dioxetane IV) in their fluoride-catalyzed decomposition. Note: Dioxetanes I-IV illustrations available at the PDFs Summary The classical Kopecky method for the preparation of dioxetanes from the corresponding alkenes via β-bromohydroperoxides was the route used for the synthesis of I to IV. The dioxetanes were purified by low-temperature silica gel cromatography and characterized on the basis of their spectral data (1H-NMR and 13C-NMR). Thermal decomposition of I-IV gave the expected cleavage products, the corresponding carbonyl compounds. For I and II, direct emission was observed with a maximum at 412 nm, while for III and IV it was necessary to use sensitizers for the detection and quantification of the eletronically excited carbonyl compounds. Upon unimolecular decomposition, the dioxetanes I-IV show activation parameters and excited state yields expected for trisubstituted 1,2-dioxetanes; relatively high stability (ΔG≠approximately equal to 25 kcal.mol-1) and preferential formation of triplet excited states are observed. The excitation yields were deterrnined by the well-stablished methods, in which 9,10-diphenylantracene (DPA) is employed for singlet and 9,10-dibromoantracene (DBA) for triplet state counting. In the presence of tetrabutylammonium fluoride, which causes the deprotection of the phenol group to the corresponding phenolate, the decomposition rates of II and IV are increased drastically. The deprotected derivatives decompose about 104 times faster than the protected ones, and a strong direct emission with a maximum at 560 nm is observed. The singlet quantum yields for the catalyzed decomposition of II and IV were 100 and 1,0 % respectively. The activation parameters for the fluoride catalyzed decomposition are considerably lower than that for the unimolecular one. These facts indicate the occurrence of an intramolecular \"Chemically Initiated Electron Exchange Luminescence\" (CIEEL) mechanism, leading to the preferential formation of singlet excited states. The proposed mechanism, based on the CIEEL scheme, involves removal of the silyl protecting group, promoted by fluoride, to generate the phenoxy-anion, which subsequently acts as an electron donor to the dioxetane moiety, leading to dioxetane cleavage and excited states formation. The first electron transfer from the phenolate to the peroxide ring occurs with the same rate in both cases. Therefore, the observed difference between the singlet quantum yields indicate that the back electron transfer occurs with lower efficiency in the case of IV. The observation of fluoride catalysis in the decomposition of dioxetane IV constitutes the first example of an intramolecular CIEEL mechanism in 1,2-dioxetanes initiated by electron transfer from a donor which is not directly bond to the peroxide ring (\"through space electron transfer\"). Moreover, as the chemiluminescence parameters, specifically the quantum yields of II and IV, can be explained based on the proposed pathways for the CIEEL mechanism, this work supplies additional evidence for the validity of this widely cited but still polemic mechanism.

A reação peroxioxalato está sendo amplamente utilizada para as mais variadas aplicações analíticas e bioanalíticas, porém, esta transformação é pouco estudada em meios aquosos, importantes principalmente para aplicações bioanalíticas. Neste trabalho foi estudada a reação de oxalato de bis(2,4,6-triclorofenila) (TCPO) com peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2), em 1,2-dimetoxietano e em água, catalisada por 2,6-lutidina (2,6-dimetilpiridina). Observou-se que a reação ocorre com essa base agindo como um catalisador não-nucleofílico. A reação peroxioxalato foi realizada também em tampão borato onde a espécie reativa é a base conjugada do H2O2. A partir da dependência da constante de velocidade de decaimento da intensidade de emissão (kobs) com a concentração de peróxido de hidrogênio e do tampão borato se obtiveram evidências que a reação neste meio ocorre por catálise básica específica. Por último, a reação foi estudada em meio tampão borato contendo os líquidos iônicos (LIs) tetrafluoroborato de 1-butil-3-metilimidazólio (bmimBF4), cloreto de 1-alil-3- metilimidazólio (AmimCl) e acetato de 1-alil-3-metilimidazólio (AmimAc). A presença dos LIs no tampão resulta em um aumento dos rendimentos de formação de estados excitados singlete (Φs). Contrariamente, o aumento da concentração de sais comuns, como cloreto e acetato de tetrabutilamonio e NaCl, causou a diminuição dos valores dos rendimentos quânticos de quimiluminescência. As constantes de velocidade observadas aumentaram tanto com a concentração dos LIs quanto dos sais comuns. Os valores dos rendimentos quânticos de quimiexitação obtidos foram correlacionados com os parâmetros de viscosidade e polaridade das misturas. De maneira geral, foi mostrado neste trabalho que a reação peroxioxalato pode ser conduzida em meios essencialmente aquosos e a presença de LIs leva a um aumento do rendimento quântico de emissão, fatos importantes para potenciais aplicações analíticas. / The peroxyoxalate reaction is being widely used for a variety of analytical and bioanalytical applications, however, this transformation is very little studied in aqueous media, important mainly for bioanalytical applications. In this work was studied the reaction of bis(2,4,6-trichlorophenil) oxalate (TCPO) with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in 1,2-dimethoxyethane and water catalyzed by 2,6-lutidine (2,6-dimethylpyridine) was studied and it is observed that it occurs with this base acting as a non-nucleophilic catalyst. The peroxyoxalate reaction was also performed in aqueous borate buffer where the reactive species is the conjugate base of H2O2. Evidence is obtained that this reaction occurs through specific base catalysis from the dependence of the emission decay rate constant (kobs) with the hydrogen peroxide and borate buffer concentration. Finally, the reaction was studied in borate buffer media containing the ionic liquids (ILs) 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (bmimBF4), 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (AmimCl) and 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate (AmimAc). The presence of ILs in the buffer results in a concentration dependend increase of the yields of excited state formation (Φs). In contrast, the increase of the concentration of common salts, such as tetrabutylammonium chloride, tetrabutylammonium acetate and NaCl, caused a decrease in the emission quantum yields. The observed rate constants increased with both, the concentration of ILs and common salts. The chemiexcitation quantum yields values obtained were correlated with the viscosity and polarity parameters of the mixtures. In conclusion, it was shown in this work that the peroxyoxalate reaction can be conducted in essentially aqueous media and the presence of ILs leads to an increase in the emission quantum yields, important facts for potential analytical applications.

A química de 1,2-dioxetanos tem sido alvo de estudos intensivos desde sua primeira síntese há aproximadamente 25 anos atrás. Tais moléculas de alto conteúdo energético, quando termolisadas, geram dois compostos carbonílicos, um deles podendo ser formado em um estado eletronicamente excitado. Na termólise de dioxetanos contendo substituintes \"simples\", são formadas principalmente espécies excitadas triplete. Entretanto, quando o anel peroxídico contém substituintes doadores de elétrons, tais compostos tornam-se mais lábeis, sofrendo decomposição segundo o mecanismo de transferência de elétron denominado \"Chemically Initiated Electron Exchange Luminescence\" (CIEEL). Este trabalho relata a síntese e as propriedades quimiluminescentes dos dioxetanos I a IV. O estudo da decomposição em presença de íons fluoreto nos permite distinguir entre catálise por transferência de elétron através da ligação (dioxetano II) e através do espaço (dioxetano IV). Observação: Ilustrações de dioxetanos I-IV disponíveis no resumo em PDF Na síntese de I a IV foi utilizado o clássico método de Kopecky para a obtenção de dioxetanos a partir das respectivas olefinas, via β-bromo-hidroperóxidos. Os 1,2-dioxetanos foram purificados através de cromatografia em coluna a baixas temperaturas e caracterizados pelos dados espectroscópicos (1H-NMR e 13C-NMR). A decomposição unimolecular de I-IV forneceu apenas os produtos de clivagem esperados, os correspondentes compostos carbonílicos. Para I e II, foi observada emissão direta com um máximo em 412 nm, enquanto para III e IV foi necessária a utilização de sensibilizadores para a detecção e a quantificação de compostos carbonílicos eletronicamente excitados. Os parâmetros de ativação para a termólise de I-IV, determinados em tolueno a partir de gráficos de Eyring e de Arrhenius numa faixa de temperaturas de 65 a 80 ºC, apresentaram valores muito semelhantes aos normalmente observados na decomposição unimolecular de dioxetanos trissubstituídos. Além disso, foram observados altos rendimentos quânticos de produtos carbonílicos excitados triplete, similar àqueles obtidos para 1,2-dioxetanos trissubstituídos contendo substituintes alquila e arila. Para a determinação de rendimentos quânticos utilizou-se 9,10-difenilantraceno (DPA), para estados excitados singlete e 9,10-dibromoantraceno (DBA), no caso dos tripletes. Em presença de íons fluoreto, as constantes de velocidade para a decomposição de II e IV são aproximadamente quatro ordens de grandeza superiores àquelas observadas para a decomposição unimolecular a temperatura ambiente: os tempos de meia-vida (t1/2) destes dioxetanos (81 e 24h, respectivamente), são reduzidos a aproximadamente 15s. Além disso, observa-se forte emissão em 560 nm devido à formação preferencial de estados excitados singlete. Os rendimentos quânticos singlete para a decomposição catalisada de II e IV, determinados através de medidas de emissão direta, foram 100 e 1,0 %, respectivamente. Os parâmetros de ativação determinados para as reações de decomposição catalisadas por fluoreto são consideravelmente mais baixos do que aqueles obtidos para as de decomposição unimolecular. Para explicar os resultados obtidos, propusemos um mecanismo detalhado, baseado no esquema mecanístico CIEEL. A primeira transferência de elétron do fenolato gerado para o anel peroxídico ocorre com a mesma eficiência no caso de II e IV. Porém, a diferença observada entre os rendimentos quânticos singlete (Φs) indica que, no caso de IV, a segunda transferência de elétron ocorre com eficiência consideravelmente mais baixa. A observação de catálise na decomposição de IV constitui o primeiro exemplo de mecanismo CIEEL intramolecular em 1,2-dioxetanos iniciado pela transferência de elétron de um doador que não está diretamente ligado ao anel peroxídico (transferência de elétrons através do espaço). Além disso, como os parâmetros de quimiluminescência, especificamente os rendimentos quânticos obtidos para II e IV, podem ser explicados com base na proposta mecanística CIEEL, este trabalho pode ser considerado como mais uma evidência para a validade deste polêmico mecanismo. / The generation of visible light by a living organism or by a chemical reaction is a sufficiently rare and unusual event to attract the interest of biologists, biochemists and chemists. The chemiluminescent reaction most extensively investigated over the past 25 years, is the thermolysis of 1,2-dioxetanes. These high energy molecules generate mainly triplet excited carbonyl compounds on thermal decomposition, except when the dioxetane ring bears electron-donating substituents. In the latter case, such labile dioxetanes follow an intramolecular electron transfer mechanism, probably via the CIEEL (Chemically Initiated Electron Exchange Luminescence) pathway. This work reports our results on the synthesis and the chemiluminescence properties of the dioxetanes I to IV. These compounds serve as models to distinguish between resonance electron transfer (dioxetane II) and through space electron transfer (dioxetane IV) in their fluoride-catalyzed decomposition. Note: Dioxetanes I-IV illustrations available at the PDFs Summary The classical Kopecky method for the preparation of dioxetanes from the corresponding alkenes via β-bromohydroperoxides was the route used for the synthesis of I to IV. The dioxetanes were purified by low-temperature silica gel cromatography and characterized on the basis of their spectral data (1H-NMR and 13C-NMR). Thermal decomposition of I-IV gave the expected cleavage products, the corresponding carbonyl compounds. For I and II, direct emission was observed with a maximum at 412 nm, while for III and IV it was necessary to use sensitizers for the detection and quantification of the eletronically excited carbonyl compounds. Upon unimolecular decomposition, the dioxetanes I-IV show activation parameters and excited state yields expected for trisubstituted 1,2-dioxetanes; relatively high stability (ΔG≠approximately equal to 25 kcal.mol-1) and preferential formation of triplet excited states are observed. The excitation yields were deterrnined by the well-stablished methods, in which 9,10-diphenylantracene (DPA) is employed for singlet and 9,10-dibromoantracene (DBA) for triplet state counting. In the presence of tetrabutylammonium fluoride, which causes the deprotection of the phenol group to the corresponding phenolate, the decomposition rates of II and IV are increased drastically. The deprotected derivatives decompose about 104 times faster than the protected ones, and a strong direct emission with a maximum at 560 nm is observed. The singlet quantum yields for the catalyzed decomposition of II and IV were 100 and 1,0 % respectively. The activation parameters for the fluoride catalyzed decomposition are considerably lower than that for the unimolecular one. These facts indicate the occurrence of an intramolecular \"Chemically Initiated Electron Exchange Luminescence\" (CIEEL) mechanism, leading to the preferential formation of singlet excited states. The proposed mechanism, based on the CIEEL scheme, involves removal of the silyl protecting group, promoted by fluoride, to generate the phenoxy-anion, which subsequently acts as an electron donor to the dioxetane moiety, leading to dioxetane cleavage and excited states formation. The first electron transfer from the phenolate to the peroxide ring occurs with the same rate in both cases. Therefore, the observed difference between the singlet quantum yields indicate that the back electron transfer occurs with lower efficiency in the case of IV. The observation of fluoride catalysis in the decomposition of dioxetane IV constitutes the first example of an intramolecular CIEEL mechanism in 1,2-dioxetanes initiated by electron transfer from a donor which is not directly bond to the peroxide ring (\"through space electron transfer\"). Moreover, as the chemiluminescence parameters, specifically the quantum yields of II and IV, can be explained based on the proposed pathways for the CIEEL mechanism, this work supplies additional evidence for the validity of this widely cited but still polemic mechanism.

A reação peroxioxalato está sendo amplamente utilizada para as mais variadas aplicações analíticas e bioanalíticas, porém, esta transformação é pouco estudada em meios aquosos, importantes principalmente para aplicações bioanalíticas. Neste trabalho foi estudada a reação de oxalato de bis(2,4,6-triclorofenila) (TCPO) com peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2), em 1,2-dimetoxietano e em água, catalisada por 2,6-lutidina (2,6-dimetilpiridina). Observou-se que a reação ocorre com essa base agindo como um catalisador não-nucleofílico. A reação peroxioxalato foi realizada também em tampão borato onde a espécie reativa é a base conjugada do H2O2. A partir da dependência da constante de velocidade de decaimento da intensidade de emissão (kobs) com a concentração de peróxido de hidrogênio e do tampão borato se obtiveram evidências que a reação neste meio ocorre por catálise básica específica. Por último, a reação foi estudada em meio tampão borato contendo os líquidos iônicos (LIs) tetrafluoroborato de 1-butil-3-metilimidazólio (bmimBF4), cloreto de 1-alil-3- metilimidazólio (AmimCl) e acetato de 1-alil-3-metilimidazólio (AmimAc). A presença dos LIs no tampão resulta em um aumento dos rendimentos de formação de estados excitados singlete (Φs). Contrariamente, o aumento da concentração de sais comuns, como cloreto e acetato de tetrabutilamonio e NaCl, causou a diminuição dos valores dos rendimentos quânticos de quimiluminescência. As constantes de velocidade observadas aumentaram tanto com a concentração dos LIs quanto dos sais comuns. Os valores dos rendimentos quânticos de quimiexitação obtidos foram correlacionados com os parâmetros de viscosidade e polaridade das misturas. De maneira geral, foi mostrado neste trabalho que a reação peroxioxalato pode ser conduzida em meios essencialmente aquosos e a presença de LIs leva a um aumento do rendimento quântico de emissão, fatos importantes para potenciais aplicações analíticas. / The peroxyoxalate reaction is being widely used for a variety of analytical and bioanalytical applications, however, this transformation is very little studied in aqueous media, important mainly for bioanalytical applications. In this work was studied the reaction of bis(2,4,6-trichlorophenil) oxalate (TCPO) with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in 1,2-dimethoxyethane and water catalyzed by 2,6-lutidine (2,6-dimethylpyridine) was studied and it is observed that it occurs with this base acting as a non-nucleophilic catalyst. The peroxyoxalate reaction was also performed in aqueous borate buffer where the reactive species is the conjugate base of H2O2. Evidence is obtained that this reaction occurs through specific base catalysis from the dependence of the emission decay rate constant (kobs) with the hydrogen peroxide and borate buffer concentration. Finally, the reaction was studied in borate buffer media containing the ionic liquids (ILs) 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (bmimBF4), 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (AmimCl) and 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate (AmimAc). The presence of ILs in the buffer results in a concentration dependend increase of the yields of excited state formation (Φs). In contrast, the increase of the concentration of common salts, such as tetrabutylammonium chloride, tetrabutylammonium acetate and NaCl, caused a decrease in the emission quantum yields. The observed rate constants increased with both, the concentration of ILs and common salts. The chemiexcitation quantum yields values obtained were correlated with the viscosity and polarity parameters of the mixtures. In conclusion, it was shown in this work that the peroxyoxalate reaction can be conducted in essentially aqueous media and the presence of ILs leads to an increase in the emission quantum yields, important facts for potential analytical applications.

The reaction of tris(2,2’-bipyridyl)ruthenium(III) (Ru(bipy) ₃³⁺) with various analytes to generate chemiluminescence has been well documented. This investigation sought to undertake a chemiluminometic study of the reactions of Ru(bipy) ₃³⁺ with selected Papaver Somniferum alkaloids and specifically synthesised phenethylamines. The investigation, based on a kinetic study, primarily addressed the effect of varying reaction conditions (pH) on Ru(bipy) ₃³⁺ chemiluminescence production. To monitor these reactions, a batch chemiluminometer was specifically designed, fabricated and automated to conduct an extensive study on the selected compounds of interest. The instrumentation incorporated a custom built reaction cell and comprised an ‘on-line’ sample preparation system with which calibration standards could be automatically prepared. The instrumentation provided both time-independent (peak area) and time-dependent (kinetic profile) information. A novel approach to the stabilisation of Ru(bipy) ₃³⁺ as a chemiluminescencent reagent was also investigated and a recirculating system was employed with the batch chemiluminometer to provide a stable supply of Ru(bipy) ₃³⁺. Codeine, thebaine and 6-methoxy-codeine were the Papaver Somniferum alkaloids selected for this study and several N-methylated and N,N-dimethylated phenethylamines and methoxy-substituted phenetheylamines were also synthesised to investigate the affect of pH on the chemiluminescence emission efficiency. The versatility of the batch chemiluminometer facilitated the kinetic study of numerous analytes over a broad pH range. The exemplary performance of the chemiluminometer as an analytical instrument, was demonstrated by the calibration functions, based on peak area data, which exhibited excellent linearity and sensitivity. The estimated detection limits (3σ) for the selected alkaloids were in the range 2 x 10&<sup>-9<&/sup;> M to 7 x 10&<sup>-9<&/sup;> at pH 5.0 and above, which compared favourably to detection limits for the same compounds determined using FIA. Relative standard deviations (n=5) for peak areas ranged between 1% to 5% with a mean of 3.1% for all calibration standards above 2.5 x 10&<sup>-8<&/sup;> M. Correlation between concentration and peak area, irrespective of pH and analyte was excellent, with all but two calibration functions having r-squared values greater than 0.990. The analytical figures of merit exemplified the precision and robustness of the reagent delivery and ‘on-line’ sample preparation, as well as the sensitivity of the system. The employment of the chemiluminometer for the measurement of total chemiluminescence emission (peak area) was in itself a feasible analytical technique, which generated highly reproducible and consistent data. Excellent analytical figures of merit, based on peak area, were similarly achieved for the phenethylamines. The effects of analyte structure on chemiluminescence activity was also investigated for the alkaloids and the phenethylamines. Subtle structural variations between the three alkaloids resulted in either a moderately reduced or enhanced total emission that was two or three fold difference only. A significant difference in reaction kinetics was observed between thebaine and codeine/6-methoxy-codeine, which was dependent upon pH. The time-dependent data, namely the observed rate constants for the initial rise in intensity and for the subsequent decay rate, were obtained by fitting a mathematical function (based on the postulated reaction mechanism) to the raw data. The determination of these rate constants for chemiluminescence reactions highlighted the feasibility for utilising such measurements for quantitative analytical applications. The kinetic data were used to discriminate between analyte responses in order to determine the concentrations of individual analytes in a binary mixture. A preliminary, multi-component investigation performed on a binary mixture of codeine and 6-methoxy-codeine (1:1) successfully determined the concentrations of these individual components using such rate constant measurements. Consequently, variations in kinetics resulted in a significant difference between the relative chemiluminescence response based on peak area measurements and the relative response base on peak height measurements obtained using FIA. With regards to the observed reactivity of secondary amines and tertiary amines, chemiluminescence peak area determinations confirmed the vital role of pH on reaction efficiency, which was governed by structural features and kinetics. The tertiary amines investigated generally produced a greater emission under acidic conditions than the corresponding secondary amines. However, the measured chemiluminescence responses were highly dependent upon pH, with similar peak areas obtained for both amine groups under slightly alkaline conditions.

ABSTRACT A GLOW IN THE DARK: SYNTHESIS AND ELECTROPOLYMERIZATION OF CHEMILUMINESCENT THIOPHENE DERIVATIVES Asil, Demet M.Sc., Department of Chemistry Supervisor : Prof. Dr. Ahmet M. &Ouml / nal Co-Supervisor: Assist. Prof. Dr. Atilla Cihaner September 2008, 63 Pages Two novel chemiluminescent monomers, 2,3-dihydrothieno(3,4-d)pyridazine-1,4-dione (T-Lum) and 5,7-di-thiophen-2-yl-2,3-dihydro-thieno[3,4-d]pyridazine-1,4-dione (TTT-Lum), were synthesized. The reaction between T-Lum and TTT-Lum in alkaline solution with H2O2 gave chemiluminescence which can be catalyzed using Fe(III) ion. Owing to its sensitivitiy towards Fe(III) ion / T-Lum and TTT-Lum can be promising materials to detect bloodstains in the application of forensic science instead of luminol which gave response to a large family of metallic cations beside Fe(III). Also, TTT-Lum, which is based on a terthienyl system, was electropolymerized and its corresponding polymer (PTTT-Lum) was obtained via repetitive cycling or constant potential electrolysis in both 0.1 M LiClO4 dissolved in acetonitrile containing 5% of BF3-Et2O by volume and neat BF3- Et2O solution. In addition, PTTT-Lum, soluble in alkaline water, was synthesized successfully without breaking the pyridazinedione unit (chemiluminescent unit), as proved by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Electrochemical Luminescence (ECL) measurements. Thus, PTTT-Lum, bearing chemiluminescent unit, can be a good candidate to be used as a sensor in near future. Furthermore, the PTTT-Lum film has a very stable and well-defined reversible redox couple as well as electrochromic behavior during p-doping process. The polymer film has also a band gap of 1.74 eV with an absorption band in its neutral state at 536 nm. Finally, PTTT-Lum film was found to be electrochemiluminescence active, maintaining its activitiy over 1000 cycles.

Controlled auto-ignition (CAI) combustion in the gasoline engine has been extensively studied in the last several years due to its potential for simultaneous improvement in fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. At the same time, there has been increasing interest in the use of alternative fuels in order to reduce reliance on conventional fossil fuels. Therefore, this study has been carried out to investigate the effect of alcohol fuels on the combustion characteristics and in-cylinder processes of CAI combustion in a single cylinder gasoline engine. In order to study the effect of alcohol fuels, combustion characteristics were investigated by heat releases analysis in the first part. The combustion process was studied through flame structure and excited molecule by chemiluminescence imaging. Furthermore, in-cylinder gas composition was analysis by GC-MS to identify the auto-ignition reactions involved in the CAI combustion. In addition, the influence of spark-assisted ignition and injection timings were also studied. Alcohol fuels, in particular methanol, resulted in advanced auto-ignition and faster combustion than that of gasoline. In addition, their use could lead to substantially lower HC, NOX and CO exhaust emissions. Spark-assisted ignition assisted gasoline combustion by advancing ignition timing and initiating flame kernel at the centre of combustion chamber but it had marginal effect on alcohol fuels. Auto-ignition always took place at the perimeter of the chamber and occurred earlier with alcohol fuels. Fuel reforming reactions during the NVO period were observed and they had significant effect on alcohol combustion.

The development of wireless DNA microelectrochemical microarray sensors is described. The operational principles of these sensors are based on bipolar electrochemistry. Bipolar electrodes are used to fabricate the wireless microarrays in this work. The systems are configured so that DNA sensing is carried out at the cathodic end of a bipolar electrode (BPE) and the result of the sensing experiment is reported at the anodic end of the BPE. There are two types of reporting platforms developed in this study. The first type relies on the emission of electrogenerated chemiluminescence (ECL). The system is configured so that ECL is emitted at the anodic end of the BPE when the target DNA is hybridized to the capture probe DNA immobilized on the cathodic end of the BPE. However, when there is no hybridization reaction occurs, there is no ECL emission on the electrode surface. The second type of reporting platform developed is based on silver electrodissolution at the anodic end of a BPE. When a reduction reaction occurs at the cathodic end of a BPE, it triggers oxidation and dissolution of silver deposited at the anodic end of the BPE. The loss of silver can easily be detected by the naked eye. This detection principle is used for DNA detection: when the target DNA is hybridized to capture probe DNA on the BPE, the BPE becomes shorter. However, if target DNA does not hybridize to the electrode surface, the length of the BPE remains the same. The BPE microarrays described in this work eliminate the need for complicated microfabrication procedures and instrumentation. For example, as many as 1000 BPEs can be simultaneously controlled using just two driving electrodes and a simple power supply. To fully utilize BPE microarrays for specific sensing tasks, a method based on robotic spotting was developed to modify the cathodic end of each BPE in the array. Because each BPE in a microarray is individually addressable, this development allows each BPE to perform a particular sensing operation. / text

Ultraviolet-visible chemiluminescent emission features in laboratory-scale flames have been shown by several researchers to correlate well with the flame's equivalence ratio, and it has been suggested that this relation could be used to actively control flames. This study investigated the feasibility of extending this knowledge to the industrial setting. Radiative emissions from basic oxygen furnace (BOF) and thermal generating station burner flames were mainly characterized by thermally-induced greybody spectra; emissions from electronically excited species of OH*, OH*, and CO2* were generally weak and did not offer any unique information that could be used as part of a flame diagnostic system. A sub-study which assessed the impact of biomass cofiring demonstrated that emissions of SO2, NOx, and fossil-CO2 could be reduced with direct fuel replacement. The sensor system could be used as a pyrometer, and as part of a burner balancing strategy to counter increased CO emissions and decreased efficiency.

Ultraviolet-visible chemiluminescent emission features in laboratory-scale flames have been shown by several researchers to correlate well with the flame's equivalence ratio, and it has been suggested that this relation could be used to actively control flames. This study investigated the feasibility of extending this knowledge to the industrial setting. Radiative emissions from basic oxygen furnace (BOF) and thermal generating station burner flames were mainly characterized by thermally-induced greybody spectra; emissions from electronically excited species of OH*, OH*, and CO2* were generally weak and did not offer any unique information that could be used as part of a flame diagnostic system. A sub-study which assessed the impact of biomass cofiring demonstrated that emissions of SO2, NOx, and fossil-CO2 could be reduced with direct fuel replacement. The sensor system could be used as a pyrometer, and as part of a burner balancing strategy to counter increased CO emissions and decreased efficiency.