This thesis consists of three major essays that respectively investigate three factors that might influence child well-being: family income, family structure, and time spent in child care. Using the Canadian National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY), the first essay finds that income-based gaps in child health are statistically significant, quantitatively meaningful, and more pronounced as children age. Contrary to previous U.S. evidence, the observed income gradient in child health cannot be attributed to the protective effects of income on the incidence and severity of children’s health problems at birth and chronic conditions. This contrast may reflect the effects of universal health insurance in Canada. An instrumental variable estimator predicts a stronger causal effect of income on child health than does OLS. Also using the NLSCY, the second essay indicates that children persistently living in single-parent families have poorer health and educational outcomes compared to children persistently living in intact families. In addition, children whose parents separate during a given period exhibit worse health and educational outcomes compared to children whose parents remain together. Using a sibling fixed-effect approach substantially reduces the associations between children’s outcomes and parental separation predicted by OLS, but several gaps, especially in mental health, remain statistically significant and quantitatively meaningful. Using time-use data taken from the General Social Survey (GSS), the third essay finds that parental time spent in child care continuously and dramatically increased in Canada between 1986 and 2010. The increase in average time spent in child care applied to all gender and education groups but was associated with a growing dispersion in child care time. While more highly educated parents are more likely to spend time in child care, the education-based gaps in child care time are found to decline. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

This thesis investigates different aspects of family structure and children’s well-being in Sweden. Applying a child perspective, it analyzes children’s likelihood of stepfamily entry, their emotional well-being in different family forms and educational outcomes in families with complex sibling structures. Analyses are performed using data from nationally representative surveys of both parents and children as well as from administrative registers. The results do not show any socioeconomic differences in the process of family reconstitution, although children of parents with low educational attainment are more likely to be in the risk pool for stepfamily formation. There are however differences by gender, with girls having higher likelihood of stepfamily entry than boys, especially in the younger ages. Children are also more likely to experience a stepfamily formation on the paternal side, thus gaining a stepmother. Gender differences can also be found in the association between family type and emotional as well as educational well-being, with girls showing slightly more adverse outcomes than boys. Children of both sexes do however show lower well-being and school outcomes in post-separation family types than in original two-parent families. Like previous international stepfamily literature the results show that Swedish children in stepfamilies and blended families experience adverse emotional and educational outcomes but that the differences are generally small. The main contrast to previous, mostly American, studies are the lack of socioeconomic differences in stepfamily formation and that adverse emotional outcomes in single parent families as well as stepfamilies seem to be mainly explained by differences in parenting and the parent-child relationship rather than economic deprivation. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper3: Manuscript.</p> / Familjestruktur, ekonomiska resurser och barns levnadsvillkor

Does a parent’s illness or disability hurt the educational attainment of their children? This dissertation consists of three essays on the impact of negative health events / activity limitation experienced by parents on their children’s human capital, and how the negative consequences of parental illness can be mediated by public policy. The first essay uses the 1991-2006 Chinese Health and Nutrition Survey and finds poor Chinese children whose parent has a serious illness are much more likely to drop out of primary or secondary school compared to other children whose parents remain healthy. The second essay, using Canada’s 1994-2008 NLSCY, discovers a similar “attendance gap” at the post-secondary level between Canadian youth of disabled parents and their peers of non-disabled parents. Finally, the third essay demonstrates that higher cash transfers made available to parents with a disability can boost children’s math test performance and facilitate non-cognitive skill development.

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Levels of non-resident parenthood in Scotland are substantial. The 2011 Scottish Census indicated 28 per cent of all families with dependent children to be lone parent households. Whilst non-resident parenthood is not synonymous with non-resident fatherhood, 92 per cent of such households were headed by the mother (ONS, 2014). Child well-being in non-resident father households is an issue of concern amongst policy makers and practitioners and both law and policy appear to operate on the principle that the maintenance of non-resident father-child relationships is generally conducive to child well-being. Whilst there is evidence to suggest the well-being of children in non-resident father households is typically poorer than their contemporaries in two natural parent households (Amato and Keith, 1991; Amato, 2005), and indeed evidence to suggest non-resident father involvement may benefit child well-being (Amato and Gilbreth, 1999; Adamsons and Johnson, 2013), the existing research has a number of limitations. Firstly, studies have typically adopted narrow conceptualisations of child well-being. Secondly, few studies have sought to disaggregate the total effects of non-resident fatherhood to consider both those transmitted directly and indirectly via mediating variables. Finally, increasing numbers of non-marital births coupled with evidence suggesting cohabiting relationships to be at an increased risk of breakdown in children’s early years compared to marriages (Greaves and Goodman, 2010), has culminated in increasing levels of early years non-resident fatherhood, an issue which has received less attention in the literature. Using data from the Growing Up in Scotland study this research explores associations between non-resident fatherhood and child well-being and the potential pathways through which such associations may operate. The research conceptualises child well-being as a multi-dimensional construct comprising four key domains: social, emotional and behavioural development, cognitive development, general health and material resources and uses structural equation modelling to consider the extent to which firstly, living in a non-resident father household, and secondly, non-resident father involvement is associated with child well-being directly, or indirectly, via household income, maternal mental health and parenting behaviours. The results show that, relative to two natural parent households, child well-being across each of the four domains is poorer in non-resident father households headed by a lone mother but not in those where the mother has re-partnered. Only one statistically significant direct association was found in the domain of material resources with the results suggesting much of the negative association to be transmitted indirectly via household income and maternal mental health. For those children who were reported as having some form of contact with their father, the results indicate paternal involvement to be indirectly associated with fewer social, emotional and behavioural difficulties via maternal mental health. Finally, consideration of the circumstances and characteristics associated with the maintenance of contact and levels of paternal involvement revealed maternal relationship status to be an important correlate of both contact and involvement whilst parental relationship history and circumstances surrounding the pregnancy were additionally found to be important correlates of contact. This thesis argues that simple dichotomies of father presence / absence can serve to mask the complex network of relationships underlying associations between non-resident fatherhood and child well-being. It also argues that child well-being in non-resident father households would benefit from policies which seek to alleviate financial hardship and support maternal mental health. It suggests that the maintenance of non-resident father-child relationships is potentially beneficial for child well-being and argues that promotion and support of contact and involvement in children’s early years likely requires a targeted approach. It further argues that the role of the non-resident father should be construed broadly to include consideration of support for the wider household in which the child lives.

This dissertation explores whether families of incarcerated fathers are more likely to experience food insecurity as a result of the conviction of the father. More specifically, I test whether food insecurity explains some of the devastating consequences of paternal incarceration on mothers and children. Because children of incarcerated fathers are at higher risk of following their fathers’ footsteps, this cycle of incarceration can be self-perpetuating. I try to determine how policy can be used to break this cycle. This dissertation examines the role of food insecurity in explaining the negative impact of paternal incarceration on the well-being of mothers and children. The United States has experienced a huge prison boom over the last 40 years. A growing proportion of the incarcerated population are parents. Children growing up with one or both parents missing tend to have long-lasting disadvantages. Previous studies have attempted to suggest a few mechanisms through which paternal incarceration has negative consequences for families but has not considered the role of food insecurity. I propose a theoretical framework to show that paternal incarceration negatively affects mothers and children through food insecurity. Using a longitudinal study of fragile families, I find that food insecurity explains some of the negative consequences of paternal incarceration on maternal depression. On the other hand, food insecurity plays no role in the effect of paternal incarceration on child behavior problems. The findings also cast doubt on whether paternal incarceration affects child well-being. The implications for policy are two-fold. First, reducing food insecurity would mitigate the negative effects of paternal incarceration on maternal depression. More research is needed in order to understand whether the negative effects of paternal incarceration on maternal well-being can be further mitigated. Second, prison reform would do little to reduce the behavior problems experienced by children of incarcerated fathers. Rather than incarceration, other factors contributing to social disadvantages could explain why children of incarcerated fathers have more behavior problems than other children.

This dissertation explores whether families of incarcerated fathers are more likely to experience food insecurity as a result of the conviction of the father. More specifically, I test whether food insecurity explains some of the devastating consequences of paternal incarceration on mothers and children. Because children of incarcerated fathers are at higher risk of following their fathers’ footsteps, this cycle of incarceration can be self-perpetuating. I try to determine how policy can be used to break this cycle. This dissertation examines the role of food insecurity in explaining the negative impact of paternal incarceration on the well-being of mothers and children. The United States has experienced a huge prison boom over the last 40 years. A growing proportion of the incarcerated population are parents. Children growing up with one or both parents missing tend to have long-lasting disadvantages. Previous studies have attempted to suggest a few mechanisms through which paternal incarceration has negative consequences for families but has not considered the role of food insecurity. I propose a theoretical framework to show that paternal incarceration negatively affects mothers and children through food insecurity. Using a longitudinal study of fragile families, I find that food insecurity explains some of the negative consequences of paternal incarceration on maternal depression. On the other hand, food insecurity plays no role in the effect of paternal incarceration on child behavior problems. The findings also cast doubt on whether paternal incarceration affects child well-being. The implications for policy are two-fold. First, reducing food insecurity would mitigate the negative effects of paternal incarceration on maternal depression. More research is needed in order to understand whether the negative effects of paternal incarceration on maternal well-being can be further mitigated. Second, prison reform would do little to reduce the behavior problems experienced by children of incarcerated fathers. Rather than incarceration, other factors contributing to social disadvantages could explain why children of incarcerated fathers have more behavior problems than other children.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / This study aimed to explore how children construct and assign meaning to the 'self' within two urban impoverished communities in the Western Cape, South Africa. Within this process the study aimed to explore how these constructions and meaning assignations were manifested within children's discourses. Additionally, the study aimed to explore the implications of the children's perspectives on developing intervention programmes for the promotion of a healthy self-concept. The study was conducted through three sequential phases; (1) systematic review, (2) child participation, and (3) intervention programme development. Phase one: the systematic review, aimed to systematically review academic literature focused on how children construct and assign meaning to the 'self.' An article search and appraisal yielded 38 articles that met the inclusion criteria. Meta-synthesis was used to analyse the findings. Six central thematic categories emerged as the key influences on children's constructions of the self. These include multidimensionality, discursive practices, socio-environmental conditions, oppression & marginalisation, culture, and social support. Phase two: child participation, consisted of two separate studies. The first study utilized a child participation framework to explore children's discursive constructions of and meanings assigned to the 'self' within two urban communities of the Western Cape, South Africa. Eight focus group discussions were conducted amongst fifty-four children between the ages of 9 to 12. Thematic and discourse analysis were used to analyse the findings. The themes of childhood, social connectedness, and children's spaces were identified to have a vital influence on children's self-concept. Four underlying discourses emerged within the themes as central to the participant's self-constructions. These included; (1) 'forfeited childhood,' (2) 'vulnerability and helplessness,' (3) 'preserving the integrity of the self,' and (4) 'opportunities for escape.' The sequential study aimed to explore how children construct and assign meaning to the 'self' within two urban communities of the Western Cape in South Africa through the use of visual methods. The data collection methods included Photovoice and community maps with 54 participants between the ages of 9 to 12. Feelings of safety, social connectedness, and children's spaces all played a central role in the way in which the participants constructed and assigned meaning to the 'self.' Phase three: Children's programme implications, consisted of a study which aimed to explore children's perceptions of the nature and content of intervention programmes aimed at improving children's self-concept within two impoverished communities of the Western Cape, South Africa. The Delphi technique was followed with a group of ten children between the ages of 10 and 12 years who were considered to be the experts on matters affecting their lives. The participants identified the factors which influence children's self-concept to include; childhood reality, feelings, and relationships. The participants' suggestions for intervention programmes included a focus on safety, social support, opportunities for learning and for play, and basic needs. The study elucidated the value in using participatory methods with children, especially the use of the Delphi method for eliciting children's perspectives for interventions aimed at improving matters related to their well-being. / The Rotary International Foundation