This research evaluates the factors that caused unprecedented high levels of non-performing loans (NPLs) in Chinese banks and the measures that have been taken to deal with them. In examining the surrounding issues recommendations are made, which might resolve or at least ameliorate China's non-performing loans problem. An extensive literature is drawn upon and a systematic examination of the factors that were responsible for China's NPLs is presented. The research aims and objectives, and the subsequent research themes were identified after conducting field research in Chinese banks. Six managers in Chinese banks were interviewed and their views on non-performing loans in their respective banks were obtained. These banks included: the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China, the China Construction Bank, the Bank of China, the Agricultural Bank of China, the State and Development Bank and Citic Bank. The results of the interviews were used to design the questionnaire, which was distributed to 16 different banks. These banks are broadly representative of the main types of bank within China and include four state-owned commercial banks, seven joint-stock commercial banks, three foreign banks, one policy bank and one city commercial bank. Content analysis and descriptive statistical techniques were used to analyse the data and the findings revealed that lending managers generally lack adequate incentives to make efficient lending decisions. Moreover, although political interference in bank lending is quite widespread within China, it is not the only issue and certainly not the major issue in explaining why managers have a tendency to select inefficient projects. The measures taken to deal with NPLs in Chinese banking are also examined and the findings suggest that these have not been totally effective in resolving the problem.

Yes / The current study contributes to the literature in efficiency analysis in two ways: 1) we build on the existing studies in Dynamic Network Data Envelopment Analysis (DNDEA) by proposing a sequential structure incorporating dual-role characteristics of the production factors; 2) we initiate the efforts to complement the proposal of our innovative sequential DNDEA through a behavioural-causal analysis. The proposal of this statistical analysis is very important considering it does not only validate the proposal of the efficiency analysis but also our practice can be generalized to the future studies dealing with designing innovative production process. Finally, we apply these two different analyses to the banking industry. Using a sample of 43 Chinese commercial banks including five different ownership types (state-owned, joint-stock, city, rural, and foreign banks) between 2010 and 2018, we find that the inefficiency level is around 0.14, although slight volatility has been observed. We find that the highest efficiency is dominated by state-owned banks, and although foreign banks are less efficient than joint-stock banks, they are more efficient than city banks. Finally, we find that rural banks have the highest inefficiency.

Yes / This study estimates output market power in the Chinese banking industry using the multi-output Lerner index. We propose a minimum distance cost function approach, which allows us to determine not only the level of market power but also the non-profit maximizers and efficiency level of Chinese banks. Following the first-stage analysis, we employ the generalized method of moment system estimator to evaluate the impacts of bank innovation and trade openness on market power in a multi-output banking context. In particular, we innovatively propose a causal structure analysis based on Wang and Blei (2019) to validate and verify the robustness of our results. We also assess this relationship for different types of bank ownership in China. The findings suggest that Chinese banks exhibit high market power in loans. Furthermore, the results show that bank innovation and trade openness have a significant negative impact on market power in loans, but a significant positive impact on market power in securities. The results also indicate a significantly negative impact of trade openness on overall market power. We find that higher levels of innovation among state-owned and joint-stock commercial banks improve the overall level of market power. The results suggest that, for all bank ownership types, trade openness has a significant negative impact on market power in loans but a significant positive impact on market power in securities. The impact on the overall level of market power is consistently significant and negative. / The full-text of this article will be released for public view at the end of the publisher embargo on 11 Aug 2025.

Abstract China’s outstanding growth performance of recent years, the ongoing liberalisation of its capital market, and its deepening integration into the world economy provide ample motivation for a deeper understanding of the country’s economic policy-making. This dissertation is an attempt to better understand monetary policy operations and transmission in this rapidly evolving situation. Monetary policy in China is unique compared to any other country in terms of both the available policy instruments and the policy environment. The policy regime is transitioning to a more market-orientated one, and presently the central bank uses a mixture of quantity-based and price-based instruments. These special features are addressed in this dissertation. The dissertation is comprised of four independent but related essays that empirically evaluate monetary policy implementation and the policy environment in China. The first essay examines the relevance of a quantity-based McCallum-type policy rule in achieving price stability. The findings are that deviations in money supply from the rule help to forecast price developments and thus underline the relation between money supply and prices in China. The second essay considers a wider selection of possible policy rules and examines the monetary policy implementation and instruments used by the central bank. Money supply and interest rate instruments are found to react differently to price and output developments. The interest rate instrument is gaining weight over time, which highlights China’s transition to a more market-based policy setting. The third essay utilises bank-level data to study monetary policy transmission and the existence of the bank lending channel in China. Changes in the reserve requirement ratio are found to affect bank lending in China in a similar manner as changes in interest rates. Different types of banks (by ownership) react differently to these changes, but no robust evidence of a bank lending channel is found. The fourth essay compares the economic dynamics in a DSGE modelling framework under the assumption that China can successfully rebalance its economy and achieve a lower savings rate and higher level of domestic consumption. The rebalancing does not notably affect the transmission of monetary policy shocks, but it does render the economy more resilient to technology shocks. / Tiivistelmä Kiinan nopea talouskasvu, pääomamarkkinoiden avaaminen ja maan tiiviimpi kytkeytyminen maailmantalouteen ovat johtaneet siihen, että Kiinan talouspolitiikan ymmärtäminen on aiempaa tärkeämpää. Tämän väitöskirjan tavoitteena on perehtyä Kiinan rahapolitiikkatoimiin ja politiikan välittymiseen nopeasti muuttuvassa ympäristössä. Rahapolitiikka Kiinassa eroaa muiden maiden rahapolitiikasta niin käytössä olevien instrumenttien kuin politiikkaympäristönkin kannalta. Kiina on siirtymävaiheessa kohti markkinaperusteisempaa rahapolitiikkaa, ja tällä hetkellä maan keskuspankki käyttää sekä hinta- että määräperusteisia instrumentteja. Näitä erityispiirteitä tarkastellaan tähän väitöskirjaan sisältyvissä tutkimuksissa. Väitöskirja koostuu neljästä yksittäisestä mutta toisiinsa liittyvästä esseestä, joissa tarkastellaan empiirisesti rahapolitiikan toteutusta sekä politiikkaympäristöä Kiinassa. Ensimmäisessä esseessä käsitellään määräperusteisen McCallum-rahapolitiikkasäännön käyttökelpoisuutta hintavakaustavoitteen saavuttamisessa. Havaitut poikkeamat säännön suosittelemasta rahamäärän kasvusta parantavat inflaatioennusteita, mikä korostaa rahan tarjonnan ja hintakehityksen välistä suhdetta. Toisessa esseessä hyödynnetään useampia mahdollisia rahapolitiikkasääntöjä ja tarkastellaan rahapolitiikan toteutusta ja keskuspankin käyttämiä politiikkainstrumentteja. Rahan tarjonnan ja korkoinstrumentin havaitaan reagoivan eri tavoin hintakehitykseen ja tuotannon kasvuun. Korkoinstrumentin painoarvo kasvaa ajan kuluessa, mikä osoittaa Kiinan olevan siirtymässä kohti markkinaperusteisempaa politiikkaa. Kolmannessa esseessä hyödynnetään pankkikohtaista aineistoa ja tarkastellaan rahapolitiikan välittymistä ja pankkilainakanavan olemassaoloa. Keskuspankin varantovaatimusmuutosten havaitaan vaikuttavan pankkien lainanantoon samalla tavoin korkomuutosten kanssa. Omistustyypin mukaan jaoteltuna erilaiset pankit reagoivat eri tavoin rahapolitiikan muutoksiin. Tutkimuksessa ei kuitenkaan löydy vankkaa tukea pankkilainakanavan olemassaololle. Neljännessä esseessä tarkastellaan talouden dynamiikkaa DSGE-mallikehikossa olettaen, että Kiina onnistuu tasapainottamaan talouttaan niin, että säästämisaste laskee ja kotimaisen kulutuksen osuus taloudessa kasvaa. Tasapainottaminen ei merkittävästi vaikuta rahapolitiikkasokkien välittymiseen, mutta tekee taloudesta vähemmän herkän teknologiasokeille.

本研究探討天津1981年至2010年間，經濟成長與銀行放款間的關係。除了將銀行分為中資銀行及外資銀行兩類外，並且將外資直接投資因素納入考慮，檢視其在銀行放款與經濟成長間所扮演的角色。運用VECM模型實證結果發現：中資銀行及外資銀行的放款與天津市經濟成長呈現正向相關，前者效果會受到後者的影響而提升；後者與外資直接投資亦呈現正向相關，同時，證實了外資銀行「客戶追隨理論」可適用於天津。

The “statement” from senior decision-maker is a section in the sustainability           report, where the most “senior decision-maker” of the institution (such as CEO,            chairman, or equivalent senior position) gives the personal view about the           relevance of sustainability to the ​institution and its strategy for addressing           sustainability. Such a statement is one medium used by company leaders to            communicate their attitudes and values to stakeholders in sustainability reports.          Under commercial circumstances, sustainability is also referred to as Corporate          Social Responsibility (CSR). This paper analyzes Chinese and Nordics senior decision-makers’ perception of CSR within the banking sector. The research sample consists of statements of senior decision-makers from sustainability reports of four Chinese banks, respective four Nordic banks. Previous studies show that CSR conception is influenced by cultural and social backgrounds. By analyzing respective Chinese/Nordic senior decision-maker’s statement, this study isaimingtofindout how Chinese/Nordic culture and social concepts are promoted in their respective bank institutions, and therefore lead to different CSR focus and strategies. The results from the study show that Chinese senior decision-makers’ statements are strongly influenced by t​raditional Chinese philosophy and social background, especially Confucian and Taoism, as well as​Xi Jinping’s guidelines delivered at the 19th National Congress of the Communist and the 13th Five-Year Plan. In relation to the Nordic senior decision-makers the gender equality and racial equality were noted. Senior decision-makers of Chinese banks mainly focus on “social stability and progress”, “economic responsibility”, and “customers”,while         senior decision-makers of Nordic banks mainly focus on “economic responsibility”, “customers”, and “environmental protection”. / 公司资深决策者(首席执行官，董事长，或同等级别)会在可持续发展报告中 用一个章节来申明他们的观点。这个章节的内容涵盖可持续发展与该公司组 织架构的相关度，以及该公司可持续发展的战略和对策。公司领导通过这种 形式对股东传达公司的态度和价值观。在商业环境中，可持续发展也经常被 称为公司社会责任(CSR)。 本论文分析了中国和北欧银行业资深决策者们对于企业社会责任的认知。本 论文的研究对象是银行可持续发展报告中资深决策者的陈述观点，它们分别 取自4家中国银行和4家北欧银行。现存的研究指出公司社会责任这一概念以 及对其的认知受到文化和社会背景的影响。通过研究中国和北欧不同银行资 深决策者在可持续发展报告中的陈述及观点，本论文意在深入理解文化和社 会因素是如何在公司中得到，并最终影响公司社会责任的实践和战略。 研究结果显示中国传统哲学和社会背景深刻影响中国银行业资深决策者对于 可持续发展的陈述和观点，特别是儒家思想，道家思想，​和​习近平​在​19大​的 报告，​以及​中国​第​十三​个​五​年​规划。而在北欧，可持续发展报告主要受到性 别平等和种族平等方面​的​影响。在银行可持续报告中，中国的资深决策者主 要关注“社会平稳和发展”，“经济责任”，和“客户”，而北欧的资深决策者主 要关注“经济责任”，“客户”和“环境保护”。