Thesis (M.A.)--University of Canterbury, 2006. / Typescript (photocopy). Includes bibliographical references (leaves 125-129). Also available via the World Wide Web.

The 2010-2011 Canterbury, New Zealand, Earthquake Sequence (CES) resulted in 185 fatalities and approximately $NZ40 billion in damage, much of which was due to liquefaction and related phenomena. As a result, an extensive soil improvement field testing program was initiated and Rammed Aggregate Piers� (RAP) were shown to be a feasible method to mitigate the risk from liquefaction during future events. To better design and more fully assess the efficacy of reinforcement techniques against liquefaction, pre- and post-treatment in-situ test data are compiled, to include results from cone penetration tests (CPT), direct-push crosshole tests, and vibroseis (T-Rex) shaking tests. The data are used to evaluate the capabilities of numerical tools to predict the liquefaction response of unimproved and improved sites. A finite difference (FD) numerical model is developed in a FLAC platform and a coupled analysis using the Finn model with Byrne (1991) formulation is conducted. The FD model calibrated for top-down shakings similar to the vibroseis tests succeeded in qualitatively reproducing the general observed behavior without quantitatively matching the in-situ values for shear strains and excess pore pressure ratios. The introduction of the RAP elements to the FD model reduced the shear strain, but slightly overestimated that reduction. Considering more advanced constitutive models that better simulate the complexity of the soil behavior under dynamic loading would likely increase the accuracy of the predicted response. / MS / During earthquakes, a significant loss of strength in soil can occur. This phenomenon, known as liquefaction, can have a devastating impact on the area affected. The 2010-2011 Canterbury, New Zealand, Earthquake Sequence (CES) resulted in 185 fatalities and approximately $NZ40 billion in damage, much of which was due to liquefaction and related phenomena. Consequently, the New Zealand Earthquake Commission implemented a field testing program in order to investigate the efficiency of ground improvement techniques in reducing soil liquefaction potential. One of the tested techniques was Rammed Aggregate Piers™ (RAP) and was shown to be a feasible method in mitigating the risk from liquefaction during future events. The focus of this study is to develop a numerical model capable of predicting the liquefaction response of unimproved and RAP-improved sites. Pre- and post-treatment test data are therefore compiled and used to calibrate the model. The numerical model calibrated for shakings similar to the on-site tests succeeded in qualitatively, but not quantitatively, reproducing the behavior observed in the field. The introduction of the RAP elements to the model revealed an improvement against liquefaction hazard; however, the improvement was overestimated compared to the field results. Considering more advanced numerical features that better simulate the complexity of the soil behavior under dynamic loading would likely increase the accuracy of the predicted response.

The 15th of March 2019, the city of Christchurch in New Zealand was exposed to two mosque attacks that left at least 50 people killed and many people wounded. The attacks were described as a terrorist attack performed by a 28-year-old Australian man with right-wing extremist views. The two mosque attacks were broadcast live by the perpetrator on his social media accounts. By using a qualitative text analysis, the author has studied the reports of the attacks of three news channels, CNN, RT English and al- Jazeera English, with a selection of nine articles. The study has investigated the description and the framing of the mosque attacks by each news channel. With the aid of a framing analysis, the author was able to identify which frames that has occurred in the reports by CNN, RT English and al-Jazeera English. The aim of the study was to study the framing of the mosque attacks by the news channels with different culture valuations and whether there were any similarities or differences in their descriptions of the attacks. The result of the analysis could show that there were both similarities and differences in the reports of the news channels. CNN and al-Jazeera English used the affective and attributive framework and RT English used the descriptive framework in their reports of the mosque attacks.

Peak demand is an issue in power supply system when demand exceeds the available capacity. Continuous growth in peak demand increases the risk of power failures, and increases the marginal cost of supply. The contribution of the residential sector to the system peak is quite substantial and has been a subject of discussion internationally. For example, a study done in New Zealand in 2007 attributed about half of system peak load to the residential sector. International research has attributed a significant influence of human behaviour on households energy use. “Demand Response” is a demand side management tool aimed at achieving peak energy demand reduction by eliciting behaviour change. It encompasses energy needs analysis, information provision to customers, behaviour induction, smart metering, and new signalling and feedback concepts. Demand response is far advanced in the industrial and commercial demand sectors. In the residential sector, information barriers and a lack of proper understanding of consumers’ behaviour have impeded the development of effective response strategies and new enabling technologies in the sector. To date, efforts to understanding residential sector behaviour for the purpose of peak demand analysis has been based on pricing mechanism. However, not much is known about the significance of other factors in influencing household customers’ peak electricity demand behaviour. There is a tremendous amount of data that can be analyzed and fed back to the user to influence behaviour. These may include information about energy shortages, supply security and environmental concerns during the peak hours. This research is intended to begin the process of understanding the importance of some of these factors in the arena of peak energy consumption behaviour. Using stated preference survey and focus group discussions, information about household customers’ energy use activities during winter morning and evening peak hours was collected. Data about how customers would modify their usage behaviour when they receive enhanced supply constraint information was also collected. The thesis further explores households’ customer demand response motivation with respect to three factors: cost (price), environment (CO2-intensity) and security (risk of black-outs). Householders were first informed about the relationship between these factors and peak demand. Their responses were analyzed as multi-mode motivation to energy use behaviour change. Overall, the findings suggest that, household customers would be willing to reduce their peak electricity demand when they are given clear and enhanced information. In terms of motivation to reduce demand the results show customers response to the security factor to be on par with the price factor. The Environmental factor also produced a strong response; nearly two-thirds of that of price or security. A generic modelling methodology was developed to estimate the impact of households’ activity demand response on the load curve of the utility using a combination of published literature reviews and resources, and own research work. This modelling methodology was applied in a case study in Halswell, a small neighbourhood in Christchurch, New Zealand, with approximately 400 households. The results show that a program to develop the necessary technology and provide credible information and understandable signals about risks and consequences of peak demand could provide up to about 13% voluntary demand reduction during the morning peak hours and 8% during the evening peak hours.

Two projects are documented within this MEM Report: I. The first project examined what was learnt involving the critical infrastructure in the aftermath of natural disasters in the Canterbury region of New Zealand – the most prominent being the series of earthquakes between 2010 and 2011. The project identified several learning gaps, leading to recommendations for further investigations that could add significant value for the lifeline infrastructure community. II. Following the Lifeline Lesson Learnt Project, the Disaster Mitigation Guideline series was initiated with two booklets, one on Emergency Potable Water and a second on Emergency Sanitation. The key message from both projects is that we can and must learn from disasters. The projects described are part of the emergency management, and critical infrastructure learning cycles – presenting knowledge captured by others in a digestible format, enabling the lessons to be reapplied. Without these kinds of projects, there will be fewer opportunities to learn from other’s successes and failures when it comes to preparing for natural disasters.

The Mw 6.2 February 22nd 2011 Christchurch earthquake (and others in the 2010-2011 Canterbury sequence) provided a unique opportunity to study the devastating effects of earthquakes first-hand and learn from them for future engineering applications. All major events in the Canterbury earthquake sequence caused widespread liquefaction throughout Christchurch’s eastern suburbs, particularly extensive and severe during the February 22nd event. Along large stretches of the Avon River banks (and to a lesser extent along the Heathcote) significant lateral spreading occurred, affecting bridges and the infrastructure they support. The first stage of this research involved conducting detailed field reconnaissance to document liquefaction and lateral spreading-induced damage to several case study bridges along the Avon River. The case study bridges cover a range of ages and construction types but all are reinforced concrete structures which have relatively short, stiff decks. These factors combined led to a characteristic deformation mechanism involving deck-pinning and abutment back-rotation with consequent damage to the abutment piles and slumping of the approaches. The second stage of the research involved using pseudo-static analysis, a simplified seismic modelling tool, to analyse two of the bridges. An advantage of pseudo-static analysis over more complicated modelling methods is that it uses conventional geotechnical data in its inputs, such as SPT blowcount and CPT cone resistance and local friction. Pseudo-static analysis can also be applied without excessive computational power or specialised knowledge, yet it has been shown to capture the basic mechanisms of pile behaviour. Single pile and whole bridge models were constructed for each bridge, and both cyclic and lateral spreading phases of loading were investigated. Parametric studies were carried out which varied the values of key parameters to identify their influence on pile response, and computed displacements and damages were compared with observations made in the field. It was shown that pseudo-static analysis was able to capture the characteristic damage mechanisms observed in the field, however the treatment of key parameters affecting pile response is of primary importance. Recommendations were made concerning the treatment of these governing parameters controlling pile response. In this way the future application of pseudo-static analysis as a tool for analysing and designing bridge pile foundations in liquefying and laterally spreading soils is enhanced.

This research employs a deterministic seismic risk assessment methodology to assess the potential damage and loss at meshblock level in the Christchurch CBD and Mount Pleasant primarily due to building damage caused by earthquake ground shaking. Expected losses in terms of dollar value and casualties are calculated for two earthquake scenarios. Findings are based on: (1) data describing the earthquake ground shaking and microzonation effects; (2) an inventory of buildings by value, floor area, replacement value, occupancy and age; (3) damage ratios defining the performance of buildings as a function of earthquake intensity; (4) daytime and night-time population distribution data and (5) casualty functions defining casualty risk as a function of building damage. A GIS serves as a platform for collecting, storing and analyzing the original and the derived data. It also allows for easy display of input and output data, providing a critical functionality for communication of outcomes. The results of this study suggest that economic losses due to building damage in the Christchurch CBD and Mount Pleasant will possibly be in the order of $5.6 and $35.3 million in a magnitude 8.0 Alpine fault earthquake and a magnitude 7.0 Ashley fault earthquake respectively. Damage to non-residential buildings constitutes the vast majority of the economic loss. Casualty numbers are expected to be between 0 and 10.

Access to clean and safe drinking water is a fundamental human requirement. However, in many areas of the world natural water sources have been impacted by a variety of biological and chemical contaminants. The ingestion of these contaminants may cause acute or chronic health problems. To prevent such illnesses, many technologies have been developed to treat, disinfect and supply safe drinking water quality. However, despite these advancements, water supply distribution systems can adversely affect the drinking water quality before it is delivered to consumers. The primary aim of this research was to investigate the effect that water distribution systems may have on household drinking water quality in Christchurch, New Zealand and Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Water samples were collected from the source water and household taps in both cities. The samples were then tested for various physical, chemical and biological water quality parameters. The data collected was also used to determine if water samples complied with national drinking water quality standards in both countries. Independent samples t-test statistical analyses were also performed to determine if water quality measured in the samples collected from the source and household taps was significantly different. Water quality did not vary considerably between the source and tap water samples collected in Christchurch City. No bacteria were detected in any sample. However, the pH and total iron concentrations measured in source and tap water samples were found to be significantly different. The lower pH values measured in tap water samples suggests that corrosion may be taking place in the distribution system. No water samples transgressed the Drinking Water Standards for New Zealand (DWSNZ) MAVs. Monitoring data collected by the Christchurch City Council (CCC) was also used for comparison. A number of pH, turbidity and total iron concentration measurements collected by the CCC in 2011 were found to exceed the guideline values. This is likely due to structural damage to the source wells and pump-stations that occurred during the 2011 earthquake events. Overall, it was concluded that the distribution system does not adversely affect the quality of Christchurch City’s household drinking water. The water quality measured in samples collected from the source (LTP) and household taps in Addis Ababa was found to vary considerably. The water collected from the source complied with the Ethiopian (WHO) drinking water quality standards. However, tap water samples were often found to have degraded water quality for the physical and chemical parameters tested. This was especially the case after supply interruption and reinstatement events. Bacteria were also often detected in household tap water samples. The results from this study indicate that water supply disruptions may result in degraded water quality. This may be due to a drop in pipeline pressure and the intrusion of contaminants through the leaky and cross-connected pipes in the distribution network. This adversely affects the drinking water quality in Addis Ababa.

Small, tight-knit communities, are complex to manage from outside during a disaster. The township of Lyttelton, New Zealand, and the communities of Corsair Bay, Cass Bay, and Rapaki to the east, are especially more so difficult due to the terrain that encloses them, which caused them to be cut-off from Christchurch, the largest city in the South Island, barely 10 km away, after the Mw 7.1 Darfield Earthquake and subsequent Canterbury Earthquake Sequence. Lyttelton has a very strong and deep-rooted community spirit that draws people to want to be a part of Lyttelton life. It is predominantly residential on the slopes, with retail space, service and light industry nestled near the harbour. It has heritage buildings stretching back to the very foundation of Canterbury yet hosts the largest, modern deep-water port for the region. This study contains two surveys: one circulated shortly before the Darfield Earthquake and one circulated in July 2011, after the Christchurch and Sumner Earthquakes. An analytical comparison of the participants’ household preparedness for disaster before the Darfield Earthquake and after the Christchurch and Sumner Earthquakes was performed. A population spatiotemporal distribution map was produced that shows the population in three-hourly increments over a week to inform exposure to vulnerability to natural hazards. The study went on to analyse the responses of the participants in the immediate period following the Chrsitchurch and Sumner Earthquakes, including their homeward and subsequent journeys, and the decision to evacuate or stay in their homes. Possible predictors to a decision to evacuate some or all members of the household were tested. The study also asked participants’ views on the events since September 2010 for analysis.

Lead (Pb) is a known toxicant that affects young children. It is believed that old water reticulation systems are prone to lead leaching from the walls of lead pipes and fixtures where water is conveyed to households. Many households in Christchurch city particularly in the Northwestern and Central parts of the city contain old water reticulation systems thereby, putting children at considerable health risks. The purpose of this dissertation is to identify the hazards of lead exposure that comes from old water reticulation system of Northwest (NW) Christchurch water supply to households, characterize the health risks due to such contamination and, finally, to suggest possible ways to minimize the hazards. This is accomplished by conducting a systematic review of literature on the exposure patterns of lead from reticulation systems and a literature review of the possible dose response patterns of health effects of lead contamination from old water reticulation systems on children. Thus, this dissertation involves a literature based risk assessment of lead contamination of drinking water supply in the Northwest Christchurch Zone and particularly, its effects on young children. The selection process of the research studies is based on whether they offer accurate and suitable information on the risk of adverse mental function in infants and young children due to environmental lead exposure; whether the studies have been peer reviewed by qualified scientists; whether the results are confirmed by other studies; and involves only human subjects. Future research may consider whether lead levels in drinking water are seasonal; whether these values are significant to health or, the possible role of the government in tightening product controls when monitoring the availability and health risk of high lead drinking water supply plumbing products available in the New Zealand market.