Male circumcision evokes emotive responses with those who either support or oppose the practice. It is an area of human interaction that has remained outside the public arena as a result of cultural taboos, but has increasingly come under public scrutiny due to the deaths of young boys as a result of unhygienic circumcision. Some taboos raise the spectre of death over anybody who dares to divulge the secrets of the ritual to outsiders. Male circumcision has resulted in public debates due to death and fatalities of some boys who undergo the ritual, but not much has been done to investigate the impact that male circumcision has on the social lives of the circumcised living in urban areas. This study investigates some of the reasons for the practice of traditional male initiation rituals by amaXhosa males who reside in Clermont-KwaDabeka (Durban); and explores, analyses and assesses the social meaning and effects of male circumcision. An analysis is offered about some of the gendered constructions related to sexual pleasure as an effect of male circumcision as perceived by Xhosa men and women living in Clermont-KwaDabeka. The processes involved in circumcision rites for the circumciser and the circumcised are examined in order to establish the context for the study and to extrapolate the processes in order to reflect on the meaning of the ritual. The study highlights the ongoing debate as to whether circumcision may be practiced as a health intervention strategy, and suggests that male circumcision has no impact on the sexual pleasure experienced by women, and concludes that female orgasm (s) is a problematic issue that needs further investigation. The study also conceives male circumcision as a cultural practice, and as a social construction that is gendered. The study recommends further interrogation of the issues pertaining to culture, sex, sexuality, gender, masculinities and male circumcision in order that this will serve as an intervention towards socialization of boys, and help them in making informed decisions before undergoing initiation. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Kwazulu-Natal, Durban, 2005.

This study explored the impact of cultural attrition on youth behaviour: A case of ulwaluko and intonjane cultural practices in Mthatha and Mount Frere areas, Eastern Cape, South Africa. The study endeavoured to achieve the following specific objectives: (i) to respectively examine youth perceptions of ulwaluko and intonjane cultural practices and their impact towards their behaviour; (ii) to establish different stakeholders’ perceptions on the link between current youth behaviours and attrition of ulwaluko and intonjane cultural practices; (iii) to explore the extent to which cultural attrition has impacted upon the cultural goal posts of both ulwaluko and intonjane practices; and (iv) to establish the effectiveness of policy environment designed to uphold cultural preservation, integrity, growth and development. The study was premised on theoretical lenses of anomie theory, socio-cultural theory, cultural imperialism theory, and cultural feminism theory. Methodologically, the study used both qualitative and quantitative paradigm and was thus guided by mixed research design which was case study and mini survey. The data was collected through in-depth one-on-one interviews, focus group discussions and key informants i n t h e qualitative aspect of the study. In addition, the quantitative data was gathered through distribution of questionnaires. The study used both non-probability and probability methods sample selection, specifically purposive sampling (for qualitative data) and cluster random sampling (for quantitative) techniques were used. Using these techniques, forty-two (42) participants were selected for qualitative interviews, and comprised of eighteen (18) young men and women of both gender divides. Moreover, nine (9) key informants were included in the qualitative data collection. Therefore, the total number of both participants and respondents was 105. Data was analysed qualitatively through thematic analysis, while descriptive statistics was used to analyse quantitative data through the use of SPSS software versions 24. The study revealed the following: a state of cultural crossroad for both intonjane and ulwaluko rites; cultural attrition is indeed a reality; culture incapable of holding their goal posts; modern era a huge driver to cultural attrition; unfriendly policies on cultures a driver to cultural attrition; human rights’ wave and advocacy aiding cultural attrition; political infiltration of cultures; human rights’ wave and advocacy aiding cultural attrition; and community forums as avenues of disseminating the benefits of cultural practices. Based on the evidence gathered in this study, the following recommendations are made: purposive use of mass media to promote indigenous cultures; community awareness in promoting and maintaining cultures; formulating cultural policies that embed stakeholders’ self-determination, and youth ownership and participation in cultural preservation. The study concludes that cultural practices such as ulwaluko and intonjane play a pivotal role in shaping young people’s behaviours and moral conducts. However, modernity forces and various omissions by stakeholders of these cultural practices have contributed to their attrition.

The study unpacked the meaning and the value of intonjane in traditional Xhosa communities. It also provides a critical analysis and interpretation of the intonjane custom and in particular its impact on the upbringing of a Xhosa traditional girl child. It investigates the value of this practice, especially in relation to where it is still being performed, even in our modern times. I researched closely into all aspects of how the girls were brought up, and with what social values. The data collection has been conducted through interviews with the Philakukuzenzela group when they were in Grahamstown Art Festival in July 2011 who come from a place called Centuli, and other people (abaThembu) who practice and have knowledge of the different aspects of the intonjane process and observation during the actual ceremonies in O. R. Thambo district, and in Gemvale near Port St Johns in the Province of the Eastern Cape. Interviews were conducted in Xhosa and translated into English. This Visual Narrative investigates and contributes to the debate regarding the value of traditional African thought and how it can enrich our contemporary belief system. The objective was to investigate the essence and merit of the knowledge imparted by elderly women to young girls during the initiation period of intonjane within Xhosa traditional communities. This study provides a foundation and springboard for my practical artworks which utilized symbols and metaphors to express my understanding of the important events and stages associated with this traditional ceremony. Clay medium was used as the medium of expression, applying different techniques such as throwing, press mold, slab building, coiling, engraving, sewing and inlaying, with press mold being the main technique utilized. My artworks are of three different types, which are symbolic of the three aspects or stages, of liminality, namely: pre-liminal, liminal and post-liminal. / Art history, Visual arts and Musicology / M.A. (Visual Arts)

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Humanities, School of Social Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the field of Demography and Population Studies. November 2016. / Introduction: South African men practice both traditional and voluntary medical male circumcision. Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision (VMMC) was introduced as a health intervention strategy against HIV/AIDS. On the other hand, traditional male circumcision (TMC) is a ritual that marks the rite of passage into manhood. TMC has been identified as a public health hazard associated with high numbers of complications and even deaths. The South African government has launched and promotes the VMMC programme. The programme aims to reach a target of 80% coverage in order to effectively reduce HIV infections in the country. However, TMC remains a popular practice. In 2009, the National HIV Community Survey reported that 67% of men were traditionally circumcised, while 33% had been circumcised medically. This study aims to identify factors associated with VMMC, in order to inform the current programme. Furthermore, this study will add to the body of knowledge regarding VMMC and TMC, as previous literature has focused on identifying factors associated with circumcision status rather than the choice of circumcision type (VMMC vs TMC). Objective: The aim of this study was to the identify levels of circumcision status and circumcision types (VMMC vs TMC). Furthermore, this study aimed to examine the relationship between demographic, socio-economic, cognitive and environmental factors associated with VMMC and TMC in South Africa. Methodology: The study used data from the Third National HIV Communication Survey, 2012. The study sample is 6 828 473 males aged 16-55 years who underwent VMMC or TMC. The first step of the analysis was descriptive, using cross tabulations and graphs. Finally, multivariate analysis was employed using binary logistic to examine the relationship between VMMC and TMC with demographic, socio-economic, cognitive and environmental factors. Results Fifty-one percent (51%) of circumcised males were circumcised medically, while 49% were traditionally circumcised. As expected; ethnic groups known to practice TMC were less likely to choose VMMC. In terms of socioeconomic variables, education was significantly associated with whether males were medically circumcised (p<0.05; CI1.66=5.11). Availability of VMMC at the health facility significantly influenced the males choice of selecting VMMC as the type of circumcision to undergo (p<0.05; CI 0.43=0.79). / GR2017

A dissertation submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Master of Social Sciences in the Department of Anthropology Faculty of Humanities University of the Witwatersrand March 2016 / This is a study of the material culture associated with male circumcision rituals among Hlubi people in the Matatiele region of South Africa’s Eastern Cape Province. In recent years social scientists and public commentators have paid increasing attention to male circumcision in the context of controversies around ‘botched’ circumcisions, on the one hand, and the growing evidence, on the other hand, that male circumcision plays a role in restricting the spread of HIV. Much less attention has been paid, however, to a vital issue that underpins all these concerns: what materials give male circumcision its distinctive qualities as a cultural process, and how do various kinds of participants and observers think about those materials in relation to other domains of material culture, e.g. medical circumcision. This study will approach the topic through unstructured interviews conducted with various groups of informants / MT2017

This study investigates the distinguishing characteristics and the modifications to the traditional male initiation ritual as practised in KwaBhaca in the Eastern Cape. The concerns surrounding the incidence of death and maiming from related traditions is also investigated. The study reveals that • the male initiation ritual is still highly regarded in KwaBhaca; • the male initiation ritual itself is still performed strictly traditionally in KwaBhaca; • the male initiation ritual as practised in KwaBhaca has been successfully performed with minimal negative incident attributable to the performance of traditional circumcision; • where there is incidence of a negative reaction, this is usually attributable to a prior health condition of the initiate, and in these circumstances, the initiate is referred to a medical doctor, on condition that the medical doctor is himself an initiate, and that the consultation will be conducted in a place deemed to be safe from spiritual contamination • incidences of maiming and death can be attributed to a number of causes, associated with poor practice and unacceptable conduct; • boys who do not undergo circumcision in the traditional fashion are not regarded as men and remain boys in the eyes of the community. This means that they have to forego participation in important socio-spiritual ceremonies; • there is a necessity to share the experience of the successful traditional circumcision process to avoid further misadventure, maiming and death; • it is not the mechanics of the process of traditional circumcision that endangers lives, but the poor practice of the iingcibi (traditional surgeons) and other significant role-players including the initiates; • The traditional teaching that accompanies the ritual of circumcision is as important, if not more important, than the ritual itself. The study concludes with a series of recommendations aimed at rehabilitating and supporting the continuation of this important and venerated tradition. / Thesis (M.Ed.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2000.

M.A. (Public Management and Governance) / This study starts with an introduction and background, and this is followed by a statement of the research problem, research rationale, research objectives, research design, research methodology and the data collection methods. A list of acronyms will be provided, as well as an overview of chapters, conclusions, and acknowledgements. “Around 5.7 million in 2009 had contracted HIV and AIDS and in the preceding year 250,000 South Africans died due to HIV/AIDS related diseases. All age categories and gender are prone to contracting the disease and the resultant loss of life has had a devastating effect on the workforce. Death due to this disease has caused loss of income and family disintegration” (Sottile 2013:2). In 2010, some 280,000 South Africans died of HIV/AIDS. In the decade up to 2010, between 42% and 47% of all deaths among South Africans were HIV/AIDS-related deaths (Sottile 2013:2). Mlambo et al (2011:1) further say that “The Human Sciences Research Council estimates that 10.9% of all South Africans have HIV/AIDS. Additionally, the Central Intelligence Agency estimates that 310,000 individuals died in South Africa from HIV/AIDS in the year 2009”. A study in 2003 made a comparison on two scenarios, an HIV/AIDS scenario and a no-HIV/AIDS scenario and this was based on the annual growth rates between 2002 and 2015. The finding was that “real growth in GDP would be 0.6% lower than if there were no HIV/AIDS, but per-capita growth in GDP would be 0.9% higher. Growth in population would have been 1.5% lower, and growth of the labour force would be 1.2% lower, but the unemployment rate would be 0.9% lower as well” (Avert.Org 2010:2). Different HIV/AIDS prevention strategies are being implemented in South Africa. The focus in this study is on male medical circumcision (hereafter MMC), which is the removal of all or part of the foreskin on the penis. It can either be performed surgically in hospitals or at initiation schools. Initiation schools perform the procedure as a traditional rite of passage from boyhood to manhood, and this is referred to as traditional male circumcision (TMC). This practice has up till now been performed purely for traditional or religious purposes, but it can no longer be viewed only as such. It should, instead, also be seen as a measure to curb the spread of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. A number of observational studies (which will be referenced later) found that circumcised men had smaller chances of contracting HIV infection compared with uncircumcised men...

MA (Psychology) / Department of Psychology

This research report is submitted in partial fulfilment of the Master of Arts in Demography and Population Studies at the University of the Witwatersrand, March 2017 / Background: Evidence shows that circumcised men are less likely to be infected with HIV compared to their uncircumcised counterparts. However, critics have argued that adopting male VMMC as part of the comprehensive HIV prevention strategy might lead circumcised men to believe that they are completely protected against HIV. Consequently, this could cause them to neglect other HIV protective measures, such as consistent condom use. This study investigated the association between male circumcision and consistent condom use among sexually active men in South Africa. Methodology: The analyses were done using nationally representative cross-sectional secondary data drawn from the 2012 Third National HIV Communication Survey. The study sampled a total of 1899 single black men who were sexually active and were aged between 16-55 years. The management and analysis of the data were carried out using STATA version 14. Descriptive statistics were computed to describe the levels of male circumcision and consistent condom use in South Africa, and crosstabulations and a Pearson Chi-square test were used to assess associations between patterns of male circumcision and consistent condom use by selected variables. Bivariate and multivariate binomial logistic regressions were used to examine the socio-demographic determinants of male circumcision, as well as the association between male circumcision and consistent condom use. Results: The main findings showed that circumcised men were more likely (OR=1.18; C.I, 1.171 - 1.182) to consistently use condoms, compared to uncircumcised men. Furthermore, place of residence, education, occupation status and socioeconomic status were positively associated with consistent condom use. On the other hand, men who believed that they would get HIV, and those who were older than 24 years were less likely to consistently use condoms. While circumcision rates were lower in all the provinces compared to the Eastern Cape; Kwa-Zulu Natal and North West had the lowest odds of circumcision of all the provinces. However, both these provinces had the highest odds of consistent condom use compared to all the other provinces. Conclusion: This study found a positive association between male circumcision and consistent condom use. The findings revealed that, contrary to concerns that circumcised men may have a false sense of protection and therefore use condoms less consistently, circumcised men were more likely to consistently use condoms compared to uncircumcised men. There is, therefore, no evidence of risk compensation associated with circumcision. As a result, male circumcision should continue to be rolledout nationally, as part of an effective and comprehensive HIV prevention strategy. On the other hand, it is also evident that HIV prevention education targeting men is crucial, as men who believe that they will get infected with HIV and those older than 24 years need to be encouraged to practice safe sexual and HIV protective behaviours such as consistent condom use. / XL2018

Thesis (MPhil)--Stellenbosch University, 2004. / Full text to be digitised and attached to bibliographic record. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Morbidity and mortality are national problems that affect a vast number of children and young adults each year in Circumcision Schools. The number of children who either get sick or die of traditional circumcision school is probably high. "In one study of penile mutilation practice (in 1990) of the Xhosa tribe of Southern Africa, 9 % of mutilated boys died: 52 % lost all or most of their penile shaft skin: 14 % developed severe infectious lesions: 10% lost their glans penis; and 5 % lost their entire penis. This represents only those boys who made it to the hospital," (Denniston and Milos, 1997: v). The problem is still the same and this could mean that the true complication statistics is likely to be much higher if the entire South Africa is taken into consideration. Although traditional circumcision was well intended, the recent spate of death puts it under threat. Besides, there are many other controversial acts that are taking place within the school itself. There are many illegal schools instituted by inexperienced traditional surgeons. The plight is further worsened by the commercialisation of the traditional institution. It is painful to note that the camps which were normally held in winter for children to heal faster are now also held in summer. The outmoded system of administration in this institution and the health hazards experienced, confronts parents, children and the entire community with a dilemma - a dilemma that warrants ethical reflection. The dilemma poses a serious challenge to the cultures that practice the traditional ritual of circumcision. Many of the advisers of this thesis agree (the likes of Prof. C.S. van der Waal, Prof G. Tangwa, Chief T.l Ramovha, Traditional healer Mashudu Dima and Dr D. Sidler) that we don't have to do away with the school as such, but that there is a need to either change and improve certain things in this school. Social change and medical awareness seem very important in this regard. The hurdle created by this dilemma, though daunting, can be overcome. We need education, cooperation, dialogue, rationality and true reflection on our culture to work this problem out. Until our children are safe from the threat of morbidity and mortality, no one is safe. I therefore think that many human errors could paint an unfavourable picture on the traditional Circumcision School, whereby creating ethical dilemmas. The ethical dilemma could be a starting point for critical reflection on culture and tradition with the hope for change and future progress. It is such a challenge that Circumcision Schools should face and which they urgently need. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Ernstige beserings en 'n hoë dodetal in besnyding-skool is 'n nasionale probleem wat elke jaar talle kinders en jong volwassenes affekteer. Die getal kinders waarvan die gesondheid aangetas word of wat selfs sterf in dié tradisionele besnyding-skole is waarskynlik haag. "In one study of penile mutilation practice (in J 990) of the Xhosa tribe of Southern Africa, 9% of mutilated boys died: 52% lost all or most of their penile shaft skin: J4% died developed serious infectious lesions: J0% lost their glans penis; and 5% lost their entire penis. This represents only the boys who made it to hospital" (Denniston and Milos, 1997:v). Dié probleem bestaan voort, en dit mag beteken dat die ware ongevalle syfer veel hoër mag wees, sou die hele Suid Afrika in berekening gebring word. Alhoewel besnyding tradisioneel welbedoeld is, word dié praktyk nou bedreig deur die onlangse vlaag van sterftes. Daarbenewens is daar vele ander kontroversïele praktyke wat in dié skole self bedryf word. 'n Groot aantal van die skole is onwettig en word deur onervare tradisionele sjirurge bedryf. Dié problem word verder vererger deur die kommersialisering van dié tradisionele institusie. Dit is ook kommerwekkend om daarop te let dat waar dit gebruiklik was om dié kampe in die winter te hou - vir die sneller herstel van die kinders - hulle nou ook in die somer beslag neem. Die verouderde sisteem waarmee dié institusie se administrasie bedryf word, sowel as die gesondheids-gevare wat daarmee gepaard gaan, stelouers, kinders en die gemeenskap as geheel voor 'n dilemma - 'n dilemma wat etiese nadenke verg. Dié dilemma bied 'n ernstige uitdaging tot die kulture wat steeds die instelling van besnyding huldig. Soveel as sekere van die bydraes binne die vervolgende verhandeling (bv. Dié van Proff. c.S. De Waal, G. Tangwa, Hoofman T.J. Ramovha, Tradisionele heler Mashudu Dima en Dr. D. Sidler) saamstem dat daar nie ingeheel van die skole afgesien hoef te word nie, is daar wel 'n nood om sekere aspekte daarvan te hersien en verbeter. Sosiale verandering en 'n mediese perspektief is van groot belang hiertoe. Die struikelblok wat deur hierdie dilemma veroorsaak word - hoewel intimiderend - kán weloorkom word. Daar is 'n nood vir opvoeding, samewerking, dialoog, redelikheid en 'n ware nadenke oor ons kultuur om hierdie probleem die hoof te bied. Tot tyd en wylons kinders veilig staan van die dubbele gevare van besering en dood, is niemand veilig nie. Ek dink dus dat, terwyl verskeie etiese dilemma's ongunstige beeld skep van menslike foute, hulle ook vra om insigte rondom die menslike kultuur, en om hoop vir toekomstige vooruitgang. Dit is wat tradisionele besnyding-skole benodig.