From the Proceedings of the 1972 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - May 5-6, 1972, Prescott, Arizona / The contribution of flows from small watersheds to groundwater recharge is of interest. Water disposition depends on infiltration and evaporation characteristics. This study had the objective of developing an infiltration equation for estimating transmission losses during a flow event in an ephemeral stream near Tucson, Arizona, in the rocky mountain forest and range experiment station. Palo Verde, desert hackberry, cholla, marmontea and mesquite are the major bank species of the sandy channels. A climatic section consisting of a hydrothermograph recording rain gage and class a evaporation pan was installed. A water balance method was used to estimate evapotranspiration. A specially designed infiltrometer was used to simulate flow events. The data allowed the following conclusions: Philip's infiltration equation is an excellent mathematical model, initial moisture affects initial infiltration rate, the Philip coefficients are determinable by the infiltrometer constructed, soil moisture affects infiltration rates, and transpiration rates diminish linearly proportional to the ratio of available water to field capacity.

From the Proceedings of the 1974 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - April 19-20, 1974, Flagstaff, Arizona / Two native grass species, blue grama and sidecoats, were successfully seeded on a semiarid rangeland on the walnut gulch experimental watershed in southeastern Arizona. Optimum seeding dates selected were those within the time period most likely to receive precipitation, and grass stands were established in two successive years with average rainfall. Shrubs were killed by root-plowing at a depth of 14 inches, a procedure which was more than 95% successful in controlling sprouting shrubs. Forage production measurements taken on nm-28 sideoats and Vaughn sideoats showed a yield of 1,950 and 2,643 pounds of forage per acre, respectively, for the 2 years following the seeding, whereas untreated sites produced 23 and 25 pounds per acre of forage. Results indicate that success in establishing a stand of native grass is increased through use of existing hydrologic data.

From the Proceedings of the 1974 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - April 19-20, 1974, Flagstaff, Arizona / Reported are laboratory evaluations to screen water-repellent materials and treatments before testing them in the field. Water repellency tests were conducted on paraffin wax, a wax emulsion and silicon, lard, and a liquid dust suppressant. Six water repellency tests showed that the high rates of paraffin wax and all rates of the dust suppressant produced highly water-repellent soil surfaces. The six water repellency tests were: (1) the aqueous-alcohol drop test for determination of the 90 degree surface tension for a porous solid, (2) the water drop penetration time test, (3) the relative height of a large sessile water drop resting on the smoothed, treated soil surface, (4) and (5) the presence and persistence of air bubbles trapped between the soil-water interface, and test (6) was made to note whether the large sessile water drop from test (3) would infiltrate the soil or evaporate. Tests (3), (4), and (5) proved the most useful of the six methods for measuring water repellency. Soil type had no significant influence on degree of water repellency as measured in the laboratory by these six tests.

From the Proceedings of the 1974 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - April 19-20, 1974, Flagstaff, Arizona / Semiarid environments exhibit certain hydrologic characteristics which must be taken into consideration for the effective modeling of the behavior of catchments in these areas. Convective storms, which cause most of the runoff, occur in high intensity and short duration during the summer months and are highly localized so that only a small portion of the catchment actually contributes flow to the storm hydrograph. Also, streams in semiarid catchments are ephemeral with flow occurring only about 1 percent of the time. This study attempts to develop a simple synthetic catchment model that reflects these features of the semiarid environment and for which (1) the simplifying assumptions do not preclude the inclusion of the important components of the runoff process, and (2) parameters of the equations representing the component processes have physical interpretation and are obtainable from basin characteristics so that the model may be applicable to ungaged sites. A reductionist approach is then applied in which the entire catchment is subdivided into a finite number of meshes and the various components of the runoff phenomenon are delineated within each mesh as independent functions of the catchment. Simplified forms of the hydrodynamic equations of flow are used to route flow generated from each mesh to obtain a complete hydrograph at the outlet point.

From the Proceedings of the 1976 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - April 29-May 1, 1976, Tucson, Arizona / The general hydrologic characteristics, selected climatic factors, and soil properties of the high-elevation grasslands are compared to the surrounding forest. Evidence shows that water yield could be increased by 1-1/2 to 2 inches if snow could be held where it falls. It may be possible to establish tree windbreaks in the grassland by altering the microclimate during establishment, and introducing mycorrhiza with the planted seedlings. This conclusion is supported by good survival in a 2-year planting trial.

From the Proceedings of the 1977 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - April 15-16, 1977, Las Vegas, Nevada / Increased nutritional and economic demands for agricultural products have dictated the need for greater and more efficient use of western grass forage. Vegetation manipulation is the quickest and most economical means of increasing forage. However , the hydrologic effects must be taken into consideration before embarking on a large scale vegetation manipulated program. This study discusses the hydrologic and erosion changes measured from a 110-acre semiarid watershed which was converted from brush to grass by root plowing and seeding. Significant changes were observed in rainfall-runoff relationships as average summer runoff was considerably in excess of predictions. Sediment yield also varied, and both of these results were tied to the change in vegetative cover and post conversion rainfall conditions.

From the Proceedings of the 1978 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - April 14-15, 1978, Flagstaff, Arizona / With the objective of determining if sufficient water would be salvaged by a typical desert, urban-household from normally wasted sources associated with the lot and household to adequately irrigate a garden and orchard, a 2000 sq ft house on a typical one fifth acre lot in three cities having climates similar to Phoenix, Tucson, or Prescott, Arizona was hypothesized and the amount of water available for yard watering calculated, provided that (1) only rainfall was available, (2) rainfall-runoff from covered areas associated with or adjacent to the lot was salvaged (roof, street, alley etc.), (3) gray-water from the household was utilized, (4) a portion of the lot was waterproofed to concentrate the runoff on the untreated portion, and (5) various combinations of the above were utilized to increase the amount of available water. It is demonstrated that these sources could be used singly or in combination to obtain the required amount of water with the actual amount available depending upon the precipitation, runoff and runon areas, runoff efficiency of the contributing area, and the number of people in the household. A number of horticultural plants are suggested that should best fit such an irregular irrigation scheme.

From the Proceedings of the 1978 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - April 14-15, 1978, Flagstaff, Arizona / Water yield studies and flood control surveys often necessitate estimating transmission losses from ungaged watersheds. There is an immediate need for an economical method that provides the required accuracy. Analysis of relations between stream order, drainage area, and volume of channel alluvium existing in the various orders is one means of estimating loss potential. Data needed for the stream order survey are taken from aerial photos. Stream order is analyzed using stereophoto maps. Stream lengths taken from the maps are combined with average channel width and depth data (determined by prior surveys) to estimate volumes of alluvium involved. The volume of channel alluvium in a drainage network is directly related to the stream order number of its channels. Thus, a volume of alluvium within a drainage network (with a known transmission loss potential) may be estimated by knowing the order of each length of channel and the drainage areas involved. In analyzing drainage areas of 56-mi² or less, 70 to 75 percent of the total drainage network length is contained within first and second order channels; yet, these constitute less than 10 percent of the total transmission loss potential of the areas. Analysis of stream order and drainage area versus volume of alluvium relations allows preliminary estimates of transmission loss potential to be made for ungaged areas.

An important goal of ecological studies is to identify and explain patterns or variation in species assemblages. Ecologists have discovered that global variation in the number of species in an assemblage relates strongly to climate, area, and topographic variability in terrestrial environments. Is the same true for other characteristics of species assemblages? The focus of this thesis is to determine whether species assemblage structure, defined primarily as the body mass frequency distributions and species abundance distributions relate in convergent ways to a set of a few environmental variables across broad spatial scales. First, I found that for mammals and trees most of their geographic variation across North and South America in assemblage structure is statistically related to temperature, precipitation, and habitat heterogeneity (e.g. different vegetation types) in convergent ways. I then examined bird assemblages across islands and continents. Despite the evolutionary and ecological differences between island and continental assemblages, I found that much of the variation in bird assemblage structure depends on temperature, precipitation, land area, and island isolation in congruent patterns in continent and island bird assemblages. Frank Preston modeled species richness based on the total number of individuals and the number of individuals of the rarest species. Building on Preston’s model, Chapter 2 hypothesized that gradients of diversity correlate with gradients in the number of individuals of the rarest species, which in turn are driven by gradients in temperature and precipitation. This hypothesis assumes that species abundance distributions relate to temperature and precipitation in similar ways anywhere in the world. I found that both the number of individuals of the rarest species (m) and the proportion of species represented by a single individual in samples of species assemblages (Φ) were strongly related to climate. Moreover, global variation in species richness was more strongly related to these measures of rarity than to climate. I propose that variation in the shape of the log-normal species abundance distribution is responsible for global gradients of species richness: rare species (reflected in m and Φ) persist better in benign climates. Even though body mass frequency distributions of assemblages show convergent patterns in relation to a set of a few environmental variables, the question remains as to what processes are responsible for creating the geographical variation in the body-size distribution of species. Several mechanisms (e.g. heat conservation and resource availability hypotheses) have been proposed to explain this variation. Chapter 5 tested and found no empirical support for the predictions derived from each of these mechanisms; I showed that species of all sizes occur across the entire temperature gradient. In conclusion, assemblage structure among various taxonomic groups across broad spatial scales relate in similar ways to a set of a few environmental variables, primarily mean annual temperature and mean annual precipitation. While the exact mechanisms are still unknown, I hypothesize several to explain the patterns of convergent assembly. Résumé Un but important de l'écologie est d'identifier et d'expliquer la variation de premier ordre dans les caractéristiques des assemblages d'espèces. Un des patrons ayant déjà été identifié par les écologistes, c'est que la variation mondiale de la richesse en espèces est liée à la variation du climat, de l'aire et de la topographie. Est-ce que d'autres caractéristiques des assemblages d'espèces peuvent être reliées à ces mêmes variables? Le but de cette thèse est de déterminer si la structure des assemblages d'espèces, ici définie comme la distribution des fréquences de masse corporelle ainsi que la distribution d'abondances des espèces, est reliée de manière convergente à un petit ensemble de variables environnementales, et ce, partout dans le monde. D'abord, j'ai déterminé que, pour les mammifères et les arbres, la majorité de la variation géographique dans la structure des assemblages d'espèces est reliée statistiquement à température, précipitation, et l’hétérogénéité du couvert végétal , et ce, de manière convergente pour l'Amérique du Nord et du Sud. Je me suis ensuite penché sur l'assemblage des oiseaux sur les îles et les continents. Malgré les larges différences évolutives et écologiques qui distinguent les îles des continents, je démontre que la majorité de la variation dans la structure des assemblages d'oiseaux dépend de la température, la précipitation, la superficie et l’isolation de façon congruente sur les îles et les continents. Frank Preston a modélisé la richesse en espèces d'une localité, basée sur le nombre total d'individus ainsi que le nombre d'individus de l’espèce la plus rare. En s'appuyant sur les modèles de Preston, Chapître 3 propose une nouvelle hypothèse voulant que les gradients de diversité dépendent des gradients du nombre d'individus de l’espèce la plus rare. Celle-ci dépend des gradients de température et de précipitation. Cette hypothèse repose sur le postulat que la distribution d’abondances des espèces dépend de la température et la précipitation, et ce, de la même manière n’importe où au monde. J’ai mis en évidence que le nombre d’individus de l’espèce la plus rare (m), ainsi que la proportion d’espèces représentées par un individu unique () dans des échantillons locaux étaient fortement reliés au climat. D’ailleurs, la variation globale de la richesse en espèces était plus fortement reliée à ces indices de rareté qu’au climat. Je propose que la variation dans la forme de la distribution log-normale d’abondances d’individus soit responsable des gradients mondiaux de richesse en espèces. En d’autres mots, les espèces rares (indiquées par m et ) persistent mieux dans des climats bénins. Malgré que la distribution des fréquences de masse corporelle des assemblages d'espèces soit liée de manière convergente à seulement quelques variables environnementales, la question demeure à savoir quels processus sont responsables des gradients géographiques de variation en masse corporelle des espèces. Plusieurs mécanismes ont été proposés pour expliquer cette variation. Dans Chapitre 5, j'ai testé les prédictions dérivées de chacun de ces mécanismes sans trouver de support empirique pour aucun. Je démontre aussi que des espèces de toutes tailles se retrouvent sur le gradient de température en entier. En conclusion, la structure des assemblages d'espèces, pour différents groupes taxonomiques et à travers le monde, est liée de façon similaire à un petit nombre de variables environnementales. Bien que les mécanismes soient encore inconnus, j'en propose plusieurs pouvant expliquer ces patrons d'assemblages convergents.

An important goal of ecological studies is to identify and explain patterns or variation in species assemblages. Ecologists have discovered that global variation in the number of species in an assemblage relates strongly to climate, area, and topographic variability in terrestrial environments. Is the same true for other characteristics of species assemblages? The focus of this thesis is to determine whether species assemblage structure, defined primarily as the body mass frequency distributions and species abundance distributions relate in convergent ways to a set of a few environmental variables across broad spatial scales. First, I found that for mammals and trees most of their geographic variation across North and South America in assemblage structure is statistically related to temperature, precipitation, and habitat heterogeneity (e.g. different vegetation types) in convergent ways. I then examined bird assemblages across islands and continents. Despite the evolutionary and ecological differences between island and continental assemblages, I found that much of the variation in bird assemblage structure depends on temperature, precipitation, land area, and island isolation in congruent patterns in continent and island bird assemblages. Frank Preston modeled species richness based on the total number of individuals and the number of individuals of the rarest species. Building on Preston’s model, Chapter 2 hypothesized that gradients of diversity correlate with gradients in the number of individuals of the rarest species, which in turn are driven by gradients in temperature and precipitation. This hypothesis assumes that species abundance distributions relate to temperature and precipitation in similar ways anywhere in the world. I found that both the number of individuals of the rarest species (m) and the proportion of species represented by a single individual in samples of species assemblages (Φ) were strongly related to climate. Moreover, global variation in species richness was more strongly related to these measures of rarity than to climate. I propose that variation in the shape of the log-normal species abundance distribution is responsible for global gradients of species richness: rare species (reflected in m and Φ) persist better in benign climates. Even though body mass frequency distributions of assemblages show convergent patterns in relation to a set of a few environmental variables, the question remains as to what processes are responsible for creating the geographical variation in the body-size distribution of species. Several mechanisms (e.g. heat conservation and resource availability hypotheses) have been proposed to explain this variation. Chapter 5 tested and found no empirical support for the predictions derived from each of these mechanisms; I showed that species of all sizes occur across the entire temperature gradient. In conclusion, assemblage structure among various taxonomic groups across broad spatial scales relate in similar ways to a set of a few environmental variables, primarily mean annual temperature and mean annual precipitation. While the exact mechanisms are still unknown, I hypothesize several to explain the patterns of convergent assembly. Résumé Un but important de l'écologie est d'identifier et d'expliquer la variation de premier ordre dans les caractéristiques des assemblages d'espèces. Un des patrons ayant déjà été identifié par les écologistes, c'est que la variation mondiale de la richesse en espèces est liée à la variation du climat, de l'aire et de la topographie. Est-ce que d'autres caractéristiques des assemblages d'espèces peuvent être reliées à ces mêmes variables? Le but de cette thèse est de déterminer si la structure des assemblages d'espèces, ici définie comme la distribution des fréquences de masse corporelle ainsi que la distribution d'abondances des espèces, est reliée de manière convergente à un petit ensemble de variables environnementales, et ce, partout dans le monde. D'abord, j'ai déterminé que, pour les mammifères et les arbres, la majorité de la variation géographique dans la structure des assemblages d'espèces est reliée statistiquement à température, précipitation, et l’hétérogénéité du couvert végétal , et ce, de manière convergente pour l'Amérique du Nord et du Sud. Je me suis ensuite penché sur l'assemblage des oiseaux sur les îles et les continents. Malgré les larges différences évolutives et écologiques qui distinguent les îles des continents, je démontre que la majorité de la variation dans la structure des assemblages d'oiseaux dépend de la température, la précipitation, la superficie et l’isolation de façon congruente sur les îles et les continents. Frank Preston a modélisé la richesse en espèces d'une localité, basée sur le nombre total d'individus ainsi que le nombre d'individus de l’espèce la plus rare. En s'appuyant sur les modèles de Preston, Chapître 3 propose une nouvelle hypothèse voulant que les gradients de diversité dépendent des gradients du nombre d'individus de l’espèce la plus rare. Celle-ci dépend des gradients de température et de précipitation. Cette hypothèse repose sur le postulat que la distribution d’abondances des espèces dépend de la température et la précipitation, et ce, de la même manière n’importe où au monde. J’ai mis en évidence que le nombre d’individus de l’espèce la plus rare (m), ainsi que la proportion d’espèces représentées par un individu unique () dans des échantillons locaux étaient fortement reliés au climat. D’ailleurs, la variation globale de la richesse en espèces était plus fortement reliée à ces indices de rareté qu’au climat. Je propose que la variation dans la forme de la distribution log-normale d’abondances d’individus soit responsable des gradients mondiaux de richesse en espèces. En d’autres mots, les espèces rares (indiquées par m et ) persistent mieux dans des climats bénins. Malgré que la distribution des fréquences de masse corporelle des assemblages d'espèces soit liée de manière convergente à seulement quelques variables environnementales, la question demeure à savoir quels processus sont responsables des gradients géographiques de variation en masse corporelle des espèces. Plusieurs mécanismes ont été proposés pour expliquer cette variation. Dans Chapitre 5, j'ai testé les prédictions dérivées de chacun de ces mécanismes sans trouver de support empirique pour aucun. Je démontre aussi que des espèces de toutes tailles se retrouvent sur le gradient de température en entier. En conclusion, la structure des assemblages d'espèces, pour différents groupes taxonomiques et à travers le monde, est liée de façon similaire à un petit nombre de variables environnementales. Bien que les mécanismes soient encore inconnus, j'en propose plusieurs pouvant expliquer ces patrons d'assemblages convergents.