The Relationship between Parental Educational Level and Children’s Cognitive Functioning This study investigated the relationship between a child’s measured intelligence and the educational level of that child’s mother and/or father. Correlations between parental educational level and children’s cognitive functioning as measured by a conventional South African intelligence scale, were examined. The instrument used to measure the children’s cognitive functioning in this study was the Senior South African Individual Scale-Revised (SSAIS-R). The children’s scaled scores were obtained from existing results on the SSAISR. Parental educational levels were obtained from existing intake questionnaires, which parents completed before their children were assessed on the SSAIS-R at the Centre for Psychological Services and Career Development (PsyCaD). Correlational analysis was used to investigate the relationship between the two variables of interest. The sample consisted of 23 cases. All of the children were aged between 8 and 10, spoke either English or Afrikaans as a first language, and belonged to the White, Indian or Coloured population groups. The results indicated that maternal level of education was positively and moderately correlated with children’s cognitive functioning. Paternal educational level and children’s cognitive functioning were found to have no correlation or to be inversely correlated. The correlation results between paternal level of education and children’s cognitive functioning should be interpreted with caution since the sample size was very small. Thus, the results are not statistically significant.

Memory and concentration problems are frequently reported long after experiencing a mild traumatic brain injury (mild TBI), though conflict with null findings of deficits on standard neuropsychological tests. Experimental research shows that these inconsistencies are, in part, due to the simplicity of neuropsychological tests. As well, past research suggests that when neuropsychological deficits are occasionally detected within this population, they could be influenced by diagnosis threat: an expectation bias for impaired performance when individuals are merely informed that cognitive problems may be experienced following a mild TBI. The main goal of this thesis was to specify the long-term cognitive effects of mild TBI, with the prediction that, while cognitive complaints may be over-reported due to diagnosis threat, significant deficits can be detected using sensitive measures in experimental paradigms. Experiment 1 sought to document whether diagnosis threat influenced self-report of everyday attention and memory problems and neuropsychological task performance in individuals with a remote history of mild TBI. We found that undergraduate students with a mild TBI were significantly more likely to report having attention and memory failures in their daily lives when exposed to diagnosis threat, compared to undergraduate students not exposed to diagnosis threat. These findings call into question the efficacy of using of self-report measures to identify long-term cognitive deficits following a mild TBI. In an attempt to further specify persistent significant cognitive deficits, we designed two different experimental paradigms that uniquely manipulated the demand place on executive processes, as past research suggested deficits emerge only when tasks require considerable cognitive resources. In Experiment 2a, we manipulated processing load on a visual working memory task, across two conditions, while also limiting the potential effect of diagnosis threat. While self-report and neuropsychological measures of attention and memory did not differentiate the groups, the mild TBI group took significantly longer to accurately detect repeated targets on our working memory task. Accuracy was comparable in the low-load condition and, unexpectedly, mild TBI performance surpassed that of controls in the high-load condition. Temporal analysis of target identification suggested a strategy difference between groups: mild TBI participants made a significantly greater number of accurate responses following the target’s offset, and significantly fewer erroneous distracter responses prior to target onset, compared to controls. In Experiment 2b we also examined whether manipulating executive processing demands would differentiate mild TBI from controls, this time on a routine action task that required participants to learn a sequence of hand movements to targets. While not significant, we found a trend such that mild TBI participants were slower to respond on trials with a large executive demand compared controls, while no differences were found on trials with relatively low executive requirements. Results from Experiments 2a and 2b provide stronger evidence for mild TBI-related slowing during a working memory task with an executive component compared to a skilled action task that also had an executive component, but placed minimal demand on memory. To more precisely identify the brain basis of this cognitive slowing, in Experiment 3 we administered a visual n-back task in which we systematically increased working memory demands from 0- to 3-item loads. We found that, compared to controls, mild TBI participants showed a reduction in P300 amplitude, conceptualized as an index of available cognitive resources for stimulus classification. While no late stage response differences were found between groups, P300 amplitude was negatively correlated with response times at higher loads in both control and mild TBI participants. Findings suggest that high functioning young adults who sustained a mild TBI in their remote past, have a reduced amount, or inefficient recruitment of, cognitive resources for target detection; a potential mechanism underlying mild TBI-related response slowing on tasks that place a heavy demand on processing resources. Similar to the effects of mild TBI, aging is also known to negatively impact cognition. In Experiment 4, we examined whether TBI-related deficits persist into older adulthood, and compound the negative effect of aging on cognition. We administered the same working memory task as in Experiment 2a, along with a variety of neuropsychological tests in order to investigate the effect of a TBI sustained an average of 50 years in the past. While no group differences emerged on our experimental working memory task, older adults with a history of 1 or 2 TBIs performed significantly worse than non head-injured older adults only on neuropsychological measures of attention that had an executive component. Such results suggest that a remote TBI sustained early in life further compounds normal age-related cognitive decline. Together, these experiments help specify the measures that best detect long lasting cognitive changes following TBI. Particularly, our findings provide a potential explanation for why long-term cognitive deficits are difficult to identify in the young mild TBI population: the majority of neuropsychological tests are insensitive to minor changes in information processing speed and, as a result, the execution of slowing strategies to maintain accuracy may go undetected. Our findings also demonstrate the importance of investigating longer-term effects of TBI, as they may be chronic and impact cognitive task performance in old age, amplifying normal age-related cognitive deficits.

<p>Many survivors of pediatric brain tumors and leukemia will experience cognitive, academic, and social difficulties that will significantly impact their quality of life. Of these, the least is known about the nature and range of survivors' social difficulties. Using a model developed for children with traumatic brain injury, the objective of the current study was to evaluate the neurocognitive and social-cognitive skills that may determine social outcomes in survivors of pediatric brain tumors and leukemia. A sample of survivors of childhood cancer aged 8 to 16 (n = 19) was compared to two control groups - children with ADHD (n = 10) and typically-developing children (n = 41) - on measures of neurocognitive skills, social-cognitive skills, and social experience. Results revealed that survivors demonstrated significant deficits in all domains as compared to typically-developing children. Evaluation of the model revealed that neurocognitive and social-cognitive skills were significant predictors of social experience. More specifically, attention problems and facial expression recognition were significant individual predictors. Survivors of pediatric cancer may experience deficits in social functioning that will impact their quality of life. Further assessment of the skills that influence social outcomes will be particularly important as a means for developing evidence-based interventions.</p> / Dissertation

Sleep appears to play a critical role in regulating daytime functioning in children. However, few child-focused studies have used objective measures of sleep and examined its role in emotional functioning, memory, and attention. This dissertation consisted of 2 studies. Study 1 examined children’s typical sleep and how it correlates with daytime functioning in 32 typically developing children (14 boys, 18 girls), 8 to 12 years of age (M=9.8 y, SD=1.4). Participants wore actigraphs (recording devices that provide information about sleep and activity) for 1 week and then completed tasks to measure emotional functioning, memory, and attention. On average, children slept less than 9 h per night, which is approximately 1 h less than the recommended duration for this age. Older children had shorter sleep durations, higher sleep efficiency, and later sleep onset times. Correlational analyses revealed that within this group of typically developing children, small variations in sleep were associated with statistically significant effects on daytime functioning. Specifically, shorter sleep duration was associated with increased negative affective response, and lower sleep efficiency was associated with poorer performance on a divided attention task. Study 2 involved experimental manipulation of sleep duration in the same sample of children. Following a week of typical sleep, each child was randomly assigned to go to bed 1 h earlier for 4 nights (Extended condition) or 1 h hour later for 4 nights (Restricted condition) relative to their typical bedtime. Each child then completed the opposite condition. Following each condition, emotional functioning, memory, and attention were assessed using objective and subjective measures. The sleep manipulation was effective: the children slept significantly longer in the Extended (M=9.3 h, SD=0.6) versus Restricted (M=8.1 h, SD=0.7) condition, and children were significantly sleepier in the Restricted condition according to parent, child, and research assistant report. Positive affective response, emotion regulation, memory, and aspects of attention were worse in the Restricted, compared to Extended condition. These studies provide evidence that modest variations in sleep can have substantial effects on daytime functioning in children. Clinical implications are discussed, including the importance of identifying sleep problems and promoting healthy sleep habits in children.

Memory and concentration problems are frequently reported long after experiencing a mild traumatic brain injury (mild TBI), though conflict with null findings of deficits on standard neuropsychological tests. Experimental research shows that these inconsistencies are, in part, due to the simplicity of neuropsychological tests. As well, past research suggests that when neuropsychological deficits are occasionally detected within this population, they could be influenced by diagnosis threat: an expectation bias for impaired performance when individuals are merely informed that cognitive problems may be experienced following a mild TBI. The main goal of this thesis was to specify the long-term cognitive effects of mild TBI, with the prediction that, while cognitive complaints may be over-reported due to diagnosis threat, significant deficits can be detected using sensitive measures in experimental paradigms. Experiment 1 sought to document whether diagnosis threat influenced self-report of everyday attention and memory problems and neuropsychological task performance in individuals with a remote history of mild TBI. We found that undergraduate students with a mild TBI were significantly more likely to report having attention and memory failures in their daily lives when exposed to diagnosis threat, compared to undergraduate students not exposed to diagnosis threat. These findings call into question the efficacy of using of self-report measures to identify long-term cognitive deficits following a mild TBI. In an attempt to further specify persistent significant cognitive deficits, we designed two different experimental paradigms that uniquely manipulated the demand place on executive processes, as past research suggested deficits emerge only when tasks require considerable cognitive resources. In Experiment 2a, we manipulated processing load on a visual working memory task, across two conditions, while also limiting the potential effect of diagnosis threat. While self-report and neuropsychological measures of attention and memory did not differentiate the groups, the mild TBI group took significantly longer to accurately detect repeated targets on our working memory task. Accuracy was comparable in the low-load condition and, unexpectedly, mild TBI performance surpassed that of controls in the high-load condition. Temporal analysis of target identification suggested a strategy difference between groups: mild TBI participants made a significantly greater number of accurate responses following the target’s offset, and significantly fewer erroneous distracter responses prior to target onset, compared to controls. In Experiment 2b we also examined whether manipulating executive processing demands would differentiate mild TBI from controls, this time on a routine action task that required participants to learn a sequence of hand movements to targets. While not significant, we found a trend such that mild TBI participants were slower to respond on trials with a large executive demand compared controls, while no differences were found on trials with relatively low executive requirements. Results from Experiments 2a and 2b provide stronger evidence for mild TBI-related slowing during a working memory task with an executive component compared to a skilled action task that also had an executive component, but placed minimal demand on memory. To more precisely identify the brain basis of this cognitive slowing, in Experiment 3 we administered a visual n-back task in which we systematically increased working memory demands from 0- to 3-item loads. We found that, compared to controls, mild TBI participants showed a reduction in P300 amplitude, conceptualized as an index of available cognitive resources for stimulus classification. While no late stage response differences were found between groups, P300 amplitude was negatively correlated with response times at higher loads in both control and mild TBI participants. Findings suggest that high functioning young adults who sustained a mild TBI in their remote past, have a reduced amount, or inefficient recruitment of, cognitive resources for target detection; a potential mechanism underlying mild TBI-related response slowing on tasks that place a heavy demand on processing resources. Similar to the effects of mild TBI, aging is also known to negatively impact cognition. In Experiment 4, we examined whether TBI-related deficits persist into older adulthood, and compound the negative effect of aging on cognition. We administered the same working memory task as in Experiment 2a, along with a variety of neuropsychological tests in order to investigate the effect of a TBI sustained an average of 50 years in the past. While no group differences emerged on our experimental working memory task, older adults with a history of 1 or 2 TBIs performed significantly worse than non head-injured older adults only on neuropsychological measures of attention that had an executive component. Such results suggest that a remote TBI sustained early in life further compounds normal age-related cognitive decline. Together, these experiments help specify the measures that best detect long lasting cognitive changes following TBI. Particularly, our findings provide a potential explanation for why long-term cognitive deficits are difficult to identify in the young mild TBI population: the majority of neuropsychological tests are insensitive to minor changes in information processing speed and, as a result, the execution of slowing strategies to maintain accuracy may go undetected. Our findings also demonstrate the importance of investigating longer-term effects of TBI, as they may be chronic and impact cognitive task performance in old age, amplifying normal age-related cognitive deficits.

abstract: ABSTRACT PHYSCIAL ACTIVITY AND EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONING IN COLLEGE STUDENTS INTRODUCTION: Regular physical activity may increase neurological development, which has been shown to increase cognitive functioning in older adults and those with dementia. Studies have also shown physical activity and exercise may positively affect executive functioning in children. Little is known about the influence of physical activity on executive functioning in college students between the ages of 18-21 years, a population that is traditionally thought of as healthy. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the association between physical activity and executive functioning in college-aged students. We hypothesize that regular physical activity is positively associated with executive functioning scores and that this association is independent of adiposity. METHODS: Twenty males and 29 females (19.5 ± 0.1 yrs. old) participated in this study. Physical activity was assessed using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ). Executive function was assessed by Stroop Color and Word Association Test (Stroop) and Trail Making Test A & B. A verbal ability test (analogies, synonyms, antonyms) was given in order to control for intelligence. Body composition was determined by a Tanita TBF-300 Body Composition Analyzer. RESULTS: Partial correlations between physical activity/inactivity measures and measures of executive functioning were generally small (r-values &#8804; 0.2) and not significant. However, there was a significant inverse correlation between log moderate physical activity minutes per week and Stroop interference scores (r=0.50, p=0.01). Also, a trend towards significance was noted for the correlation between sitting minutes per week and Stroop interference scores (r=0.4 p=0.08) CONCLUSION: These results suggest that in college students, moderate physical activity is inversely associated with executive functioning while sitting time may be positively associated with executive functioning. These findings are in contrast to previous studies in children and older adults, and may indicate a unique relationship between physical activity/inactivity and executive functioning in college students. Future studies to further examine this population in greater depth are warranted. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Exercise and Wellness 2012

Grounded in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000) and objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), the purpose of this thesis was to investigate the role of dispositional autonomous and controlled motivation in predicting who might be more protected from or more vulnerable to experiencing state self-objectification (Manuscript 1), diminished cognitive functioning or cognitive performance (Manuscript 1 & 2), and poorer self-evaluations (Manuscript 2) following exposure to advertisements portraying one of two leading cultural body ideals: the male muscular ideal (Manuscript 1) or female thin ideal (Manuscript 2). The objectives were to investigate the effects of the two ideals while evaluating the contribution of autonomous and controlled motivation orientation in statistically predicting various body image consequences using five separate male undergraduate samples. Consistent with the overall hypotheses of the thesis, the muscular ideal video and thin ideal video significantly decreased men’s cognitive functioning and cognitive performance compared to men in the neutral video conditions (Manuscript 1 & 2). In addition, men who were primed with the muscular ideal video demonstrated significantly higher levels of self-objectification compared to those in the neutral condition (Manuscript 1: Study 1 and Study 2). Mediation results revealed an indirect effect of the muscular ideal video on men’s cognitive functioning (i.e., appearance schema activation) through self-objectification (Manuscript 1: Study 1), thereby supporting objectification theory as a means of explaining how portrayals of muscular body ideals affect men’s cognitive function. However, inconsistent with previous studies, the female thin ideal did not significantly affect men’s self-evaluations (Manuscript 2: Study 2). Lastly, in line with self-determination theory, all five studies (Manuscript 1 & 2) found that autonomous motivation orientation played a significant moderating role against the cognitive consequences associated with cultural body ideals among young college men. Men who viewed the muscular ideal video and who reported high levels of dispositional autonomous motivation demonstrated less appearance schema activation, less difficulty solving a challenging Soma puzzle, and performed better on the Modified Stroop task compared to men with low levels of dispositional autonomous motivation (Manuscript 1). Similarly, men who reported high levels of dispositional autonomous motivation and viewed the thin ideal also demonstrated less appearance schema activation and less difficulty solving a challenging Soma puzzle compared to men who reported low levels of dispositional autonomous motivation (Manuscript 2). In contrast, controlled motivation orientation was not a significant moderator across all five studies (Manuscript 1 & 2). Collectively, our findings highlight the importance of incorporating autonomous motivation orientation and self-objectification into theoretical models of men’s body image.

This research involves an examination of the relationship between education and age on a wide array of neuropsychological test measures among patients diagnosed with Alzheimer's and vascular dementia. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of education as an attenuating factor to neurocognitive decline in dementia. Although numerous studies have been published regarding the relationship between educational attainment and AD, few have included other subtypes of dementia in their investigation. To further expand the generalizability of previous findings, the sample in this study included both AD and VaD. While previous research has demonstrated a relationship between education and age-related neurocognitive decline in AD, most studies have utilized the MMSE or brief screening instrument to assess cognitive functioning. The present research included VaD and examined a variety of cognitive domains such as measures of global functioning, verbal intelligence, verbal memory, visual memory, attention/concentration, language, visuospatial skills, speed-of-processing, and abstract reasoning/executive functioning. Two standard multiple regression analyses were conducted, the first including age and education as the independent variables to assess the effects on one over and above that of the other. The second analysis included age, education, and their interaction term in order to determine if education attenuates age-related neurocognitive decline in the diagnostic groups. Raw neuropsychological test measure scores were included in all analyses as dependent measures. Results revealed that age minimally predicted performance in both groups, whereas education better predicted neurocognitive test performance in the AD group than in the VaD group. Furthermore, findings suggest that among individuals with AD, the rate of neurocognitive impairment in encoding verbal information and visuoconstructional ability is buffered by higher levels of education attainment. None of the interaction terms were significant for the VaD group. The current findings question the extent and generalizability of the presumed protective effects of higher education on age-related neurocognitive decline.

No description available.

Mood disorders (MD) are among the most common mental disorders worldwide. Low treatment adherence and treatment resistance are two of the most substantial challenges facing clinicians who treat persons with MD. This thesis examined: (1) a pilot study investigating whether a one-on-one personalized medication training program, called PIMM/SAM, improves medication adherence in persons with MD; and (2) a systematic review and meta-analysis on the effects of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) on cognitive functioning in persons with depression. To evaluate the impact of PIMM/SAM on medication adherence, a randomized controlled trial was launched in a mood disorders inpatient unit to compare PIMM/SAM (partnership in medication management/self-administered medication) program to standard prescribing practice (SPP). Over follow-up in the feasibility portion of the trial, participants in the PIMM/SAM group (n = 7) held fewer negative beliefs about medications and had lower depersonalization scores compared to participants in the SPP group (n = 5). Between-group differences on the Medication Adherence Rating Scale favoured the PIMM/SAM group, but were not statistically significant. To examine the effects of bilateral versus unilateral ECT on cognitive performance in persons with TRD, 18 studies across 10 different cognitive domains were meta-analyzed. In the 8- to 30-day timeframe post-ECT, persons who received bilateral versus unilateral ECT had over double the odds of worse cognitive performance in global cognition, non-verbal memory delayed recall, verbal memory immediate and delayed recall, subjective memory, and verbal memory immediate recall. A personalized medication training program in a mood disorders clinic may have positive implications for medication adherence. The trial to evaluate PIMM/SAM versus SPP is ongoing and further evidence about the training program is expected within the next 12 months. The systematic review and meta-analysis showed that cognitive performance was worse in persons who received bilateral versus unilateral ECT in some cognitive domains at 8 to 30 days post-treatment. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Mood disorders (MD), including major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar disorder, are among the most common mental disorders worldwide. Treating MD is a challenge because of long treatments, the presence of other illnesses, treatment side effects, problems with memory, attention, and decision-making, a lack of understanding about medications, or incorrect beliefs about medication (BAM). Persons with MD who do not respond to drug treatment are often given electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). This thesis explored the challenges of treating persons with MD through: (1) a pilot study examining whether a one-on-one personalized medication training program, called PIMM/SAM, would help persons with MD take their medications as prescribed; and (2) a study of the effects of ECT on cognitive functioning in depression. Results: (1) participants randomized to PIMM/SAM group held fewer negative BAM than participants receiving standard care; (2) evidence showed worse cognitive functioning in persons who received more intense forms of ECT.