Collegiate athletes have been an overlooked and vulnerable population regarding mental health concerns. Across the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I and Division II, many athletes have taken on the mindset of “shake it off” or “get over it”, when dealing with physical or emotional pain (López and Levy, 2013). Additionally, collegiate athletes face barriers when considering treating pain, including the limited availability of time to use services, the stigma of being perceived as weak by coaches or other teammates, and the lack of counselors that have knowledge or experience with sports. Given these disparities, the current study attempted to understand the impact of injury, support, and emotional distress on current collegiate athletes. The researchers hypothesized that greater collegiate sports-related injuries, reduced team and coach support (Perceived Available Support in Sport Questionnaire), greater perceived stress (Perceived Stress Scale), and reduced readiness to return to sport following injury (Psychological Readiness to Return to Sport Scale) would be associated with reduced measures of psychological wellbeing (Student-Athlete Wellbeing Scale) and increases in athletic burnout (Athlete Burnout Scale). Participants included student-athletes from a private, liberal arts university, who completed an online survey. Multiple regression analysis revealed a significant association between number of collegiate injuries (NCI: β=.533, p<.027) and perceived stress (PSS: β=.716, p<.012) on the Athlete Burnout subscale, sports devaluation (r2 = .903, F(3,7) = 12.397, p < .017). Furthermore, perceived stress was also significantly associated with athletic burnout subscales: reduced accomplishments (r2 = .942, F(3,7) = 21.555, p < .006; β=.750, p<.004) and emotional & physical exhaustion (r2 = .883, F(3,7) = 10.100, p < .024; β=.943, p<.006), as well as, psychological wellbeing (SAWS: r2 = .919, F(3,7) = 15.120, p < .012; β=-.922, p<.004). Measures of support in sport and psychological readiness to return to sport after injury were not significant predictors of either athlete burnout or student-athlete wellbeing. This data suggests that perceived stress is a primary predictor of burnout and psychological wellbeing in student-athletes and may help to identify those athletes in need of additional support. However, further studies need to investigate this relationship as this fairly homogenous athlete population may not fully identify specific vulnerabilities of the larger collegiate athlete population.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Too few studies relating to motivation and wellness have targeted the NCAA Division II student-athlete (SA) population. PURPOSES: To examine differences in SAs’ sport motivation (SM) types over three time points as well as multi-dimensional wellness (MDW) levels in SAs during one time point. METHODS: Overall, 530 Division II SAs (nmales = 355, nfemales = 175) with an overall age range of 18 to 23 (M = 19.40, SD = 1.33) from 21 teams voluntarily completed the 18-item Self-Determination Theory-based SM Scale II used to measure six motivation types, the 45-item MDW Inventory used to measure nine wellness dimensions, and a demographics questionnaire. Repeated measures Analyses of Variance (ANOVA) and 2x2x3 Mixed ANOVAs were used to analyze SM types while a multivariate ANOVA was used to analyze MDW with an alpha level of 0.05 set for statistical significance. RESULTS: Analyses demonstrated statistically significant differences in SM types over time (p = .05), interactions and differences in SM types between interactive/coactive and male/female SAs (p = .05), and interactions and differences in MDW levels between male/female SAs and SAs who completed/did not complete a college wellness course (p = .05). CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggested that autonomous-based SM types decreased over time whereas amotivation increased over time indicating possible athlete burnout. Interactive and female SAs showed similarities also representative of athlete burnout. SAs who completed the MDW course demonstrated higher physical wellness exercise scores than SAs who did not. Female SAs had higher means in five wellness dimensions when compared to male SAs. SAs who completed the course showed higher means for seven wellness dimensions versus SAs who did not. Further research should ensue to better understand motivation and wellness on a national scale examining Division I, II and III and NAIA athletes in order to provide more generalizable results.

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ABSTRACT Title: Relative Energy Deficiency in Female Collegiate Track & Field Athletes. Background: Energy deficiency and its consequences have long been studied in female athletes because of it’s potential for increasing risks of illness and injury. Sustaining an energy deficient diet while training and during competition may result in muscle loss and reduction in performance. Studies suggest that athletes competing in sports focusing on appearance or a lean physique are at high risk for energy deficiency. In 2014, the IOC developed the concept of ‘Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport’ (RED-S) to include new components not previously included in the Female Athlete Triad. A study has not yet been completed applying the RED-S paradigm in collegiate track and field athletes. Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence of RED-S in female collegiate track and field athletes. It was hypothesized that the majority of collegiate track and field athletes experience RED-S. It was also hypothesized that a greater percentage of distance runners experience RED-S than other track and field athletes, including throwers, jumpers, and sprinters. The components of RED-S assessed were menstrual function, bone health, and energy expenditure. Methods: This study was a descriptive cross-sectional study, obtaining data through the use of a questionnaire and a relative energy expenditure index on a population of 12 female collegiate track and field athletes. Data were obtained through the use of a LEAF-Q questionnaire, a three-day food and exercise recall, and body composition analysis. Results: The 12 athletes were a combination of distance runners (n=5), throwers (n=2), and sprinters (n=5). Average subject characteristics were: age (20.6 ±1. 44 years), height (165.6 ±7.5cm), weight (63.58 ± 16.97kg), and body fat percentage (20.9± 7.2). Average energy intake over three days was 2146 kcal (±627), and the average predicted energy expenditure was 2380 kcal (±458). Average hours spent in a catabolic (52.8 ± 24.0), highly catabolic (37.5 ± 25.0), anabolic (19.2 ± 24.0), and highly anabolic state (12.4 ± 21.0). Subjects were in a negative energy balance state the majority of the days analyzed, and 75% of the population had at least one day of dietary recall below 45 kcal/kg FFM/day. Spearman’s rho analysis found a significant inverse correlation between Day 1 hours spent in optimal energy balance (± 400 kcal) and body fat percent (p=0.024, rs= -0.643), and significant positive correlation between Day 1 hours spent in optimal energy balance (± 400 kcal) and fat free mass percentage (p=0.03, rs=0.625). Spearman’s rho analysis also found an inverse correlation between Day 1 hours spent in an energy deficit (s= -0.626), and a positive correlation between Day 1 hours spent in an energy deficit and body fat percentage (p=0.026, rs=0.636). Seven out of twelve participants scored ≥ 8 on the LEAF-Q putting them at risk for RED-S. Conclusion: The study highlights the misleading effect of averaging multiple days of dietary recall on energy balance. When participant’s dietary recalls were assessed day by day the majority of hours were spent in a catabolic state, however when the three days of the recall were averaged the severity of the hours spent in a catabolic state lessened. The associations in this study are consistent with previous studies evaluating the relationships between energy balance deficits and body composition, indicating that longer duration spent in an energy deficit is associated with lower lean and higher fat mass. The findings from the LEAF-Q show that 58% of participants were at risk for RED-S, and half of all participants had or were experiencing menstrual dysfunction.

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For decades strength and conditioning professionals have been seeking optimal training volumes and intensities to yield maximum performance outcomes without the onset of injury. Unfortunately, current studies apply experimental training techniques without considering the individuals’ response to the imposed training load. Due to the vast genetic variability and extraneous environmental factors that affect one’s ability to recover, results from such studies are controversial and inconclusive. Athlete monitoring systems offer an objective assessment that is purported to evaluate an individual’s physiological readiness to adapt to an overload stimulus and thus allow for daily manipulations in training loads (i.e., fluid periodization). However, little is known about the efficacy of this technology to enhance training outcomes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effect of fluid periodization on performance outcomes in American football players. Sixty-one Division 1 collegiate American football players (Age: 19.7 ± 0.9 yr; Height: 1.88 ± 0.3 m; Mass: 107.3 ± 11.1 kg) participated in this study and were stratified into experimental (n=33) and control (n=28) groups. Performance outcomes were measured prior to and following the summer training program. Physiological readiness parameters (heart rate variability and direct current brain wave potential outcomes) were measured daily in the experimental group only with Omegawave technology prior to training sessions and adjustments in training volumes or intensity were made based upon physiological readiness outcomes. The control group trained according to the daily prescribed workout. The findings from this study indicate that the experimental group significantly improved in vertical jump, vertical power, aerobic efficiency and broad jump (P < 0.01) compared to the control group. Additionally, significant improvements and effect sizes between groups were noted for fat-free mass (relative improvement: 54%, effect size: 0.30), vertical jump (relative improvement: 157%, effect size: 1.02), vertical power (relative improvement: 94%, effect size: 0.86), broad jump (relative improvement: effect size: 592%, 0.81), triple broad jump (relative improvement: 338%, effect size: 0.63), aerobic efficiency (relative improvement: 154%, effect size: 1.02), and medicine ball overhead throw (relative improvement: 50%, effect size: 0.26). In addition, the experimental group achieved these improvements with less core (-9.5%) and accessory (-13.2%) training volume (P < 0.01). In conclusion, fluid periodization produced greater improvements in performance outcomes at a reduced training load compared to a similar unmodified periodization scheme. These findings highlight the importance of modifying training parameters based upon the daily physiological state of the athlete.

PURPOSE: To determine the relative contribution of vastus lateralis (VL) and lateral gastrocnemius (LG) cross-sectional area (CSA) to countermovement jump height (JH) in collegiate athletes. METHODS: Sixty-nine male (n=33, 20.43 ± 1.68 y, 180.34 ± 11.39 cm, 77.54 ± 14.45 kg) and female (n=36, 19.79 ± 1.09 y, 168.46 ± 10.07 cm, 67.33 ± 9.48 kg) collegiate athletes competing in basketball, tennis, cross-country, weightlifting, and volleyball were recruited for the study. Testing was conducted as part of an on-going athlete monitoring program. Athletes were tested on measures of VL and LG CSA using β-mode ultrasonography, and JH measured on force platforms sampling at 1000Hz. Jump height was regressed on age, sex, body mass, VL and LG CSA using a simultaneous multiple linear regression after testing regression assumptions. A relative importance analysis was conducted to determine the relative contribution of each independent variable. The alpha level for all analyses was set at p≤0.05. RESULTS: The model explained 48% of the variance in JH (p<0.001, observed statistical power=0.99). Body mass (B=-0.16, p=0.01), sex (B=-5.10, p<0.001), and VL CSA (B=0.66, p<0.001) were statistical predictors of JH. Age, LG CSA, body mass, sex, and VL CSA contributed 3%, 3%, 7%, 32%, and 55% of the total variance explained by the model, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Vastus lateralis CSA has a greater contribution to JH than LG CSA while controlling for the variance of age, sex, and body mass. Therefore, greater emphasis should be placed on developing VL CSA than LG CSA for athletes whose goal is to improve JH. Athletes who lose body mass without losing VL CSA may also improve JH.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of BCAA on perception of muscular soreness in collegiate distance runners. METHODS: 8 collegiate distance runners (men n=4, women n=4) took BCAA supplement (SUP) (0.08g/kg) or placebo (PLA) daily for 6 weeks, alternating conditions week to week. Each morning prior to their training session, athletes filled out a 10-point scale Soreness Chart in which they rated soreness levels for each major lower extremity muscle group on both anterior (ANT) and posterior (POST) body segments where 1= no pain at all and 10= excruciating pain. Responses were totaled for each condition (SUP or PLA) and body segment (ANT or POST). Data were analyzed using paired-samples T-tests to compare soreness levels between PLA and SUP weeks. The alpha criterion was set to p

This study investigated the strategies academically successful college student athletes use to do well in their class work, where academic success was defined as a 3.5 GPA for 12 or more credits for the two semesters preceding the study. Data were transcriptions of individual interviews with five male and five female athletes in seven sports at an NCAA Division I university in the western United States. Independent coders analyzed the data and agreed upon themes related to challenges to academic success and strategies to meet those challenges. Findings add to the literature by detailing self-regulatory habits that academically underprepared athletes can adopt from their successful peers. Academic advisors can use these findings as they help athletes increase academic success and learn valuable life skills.