This thesis concerns the evolution of language. A proliferation of theoretical models have been presented in recent years purporting to offer evolutionary accounts for various aspects of modern languages. These models rely heavily on abstract mechanistic models of the production and reception of language by modern humans, drawn from various approaches in linguistics which aim at such models. A very basic and ubiquitous assumption is that expressions have meaning in virtue of being associated with internal representations, and that therefore the evolution of language can be modelled on the basis of individuals trying to produce external manifestations of these internal “meanings”. I examine the role of this assumption in language evolution theorising, and review evidence from neuroscience and first language acquisition relevant to the validity of this assumption. The chaotic nature of the relationship between “meaning” and the brain undermines the supposition that the evolution of language was driven by spontaneous association between internal structures and external forms. I then turn to the philosophical basis of language evolution theorising, adopting a Wittgensteinian perspective on the cognitive interpretation of linguistic theories. I argue that the theoretical apparatus of such approaches is embedded in language games whose complicated rules relate to linguistic behaviour (and idealisations of that behaviour) but not to neural organisation. The reinterpretation of such descriptions of language as descriptions of the internal structures of language users is rejected as a grammatical confusion: if the rules for constructing linguistic theory descriptions do not mention neural structures, then theoretical descriptions of the linguistic abilities of an individual say nothing non-trivial about their internal brain structure. I do not deny that it would, in principle, be possible to reduce linguistic theories (reinterpreted as mechanistic descriptions) to neural structures, but claim that this possibility is guaranteed only by leaving the practice of re-describing physical brain descriptions entirely unconstrained. Thus the idea that we can reasonably infer the behaviour of humans and prehumans in more primitive communicative environments by manipulation of the models of linguistic theories is unfounded: we have no idea how such a manipulation would translate into statements about neural organisation, and so no idea how plausible such statements about earlier neural organisation (and the resultant behaviours) are. As such, cognitive interpretations of linguistic theories provide no better ground for statements about behaviour during earlier stages in the evolution of language than guessing. Rejecting internal-mechanism based accounts as unfounded leaves the evolution of language unexplained. In the latter parts of this thesis, I offer a more neutral approach which is sensitive to the limited possibilities available for making predictions about human (and pre-human) behaviour at earlier stages in the evolution of language. Rather than focusing on the individual and imputed internal language machinery, the account considers the communicative affordances available to individuals. The shifts in what individuals can learn to do in interaction with others, that result in turn from the learning of interactive practices by others, form the basis of this account. General trends in the development of communicative affordances are used to account for generalisations over attested semantic change, and to suggest how certain aspects of modern language use developed without simply assuming that it is “natural” for humans to (spontaneously) behave in these ways. The model is used in an account of the evolution and common structure of colour terms across different languages.

My work articulates experiences of intimacy and porosity with regard to domestic space. I think of these paintings as fields of interrelatedness which work to dismantle the perceived thresholds between things. The following text brings together the research of my studio practice and a survey of artists, writers, and filmmakers who have charted related spaces of the ordinary, domestic, and porous.

The thistle Cirsium palustre exists over most of lowland Britain as a predominantly purple flowered species. However the populations of seacliffs and mountains exhibit a flower colour polymorphism, occurring as homozygous white morphs, homozygous and heterozygous intermediate morphs, and homozygous and heterozygous purple morphs. The degree of polymorphism of the seacliff populations of the Gower Peninsula is correlated with population size, the larger populations being less polymorphic. This might be interpreted as indicating chance fixation of the white alleles. Such an explanation would gain support from the very small size of the more polymorphic populations and from the drastic fluctuations in population size which have been demonstrated as having occurred in these populations over a period of four consecutive seasons. However other explanations based on selective effects are possible. On seacliffs the frequency of the white morphs is inversely related to exposure, and decreases in population size are accompanied by differential survival of the purple morphs. On mountains the distribution of the polymorphism is markedly correlated with altitude. For the mountains of southern Mid Wales, populations below 1000 ft. are strongly monomorphic purple. Above 1000 ft. the degree of polymorphism increases abruptly, with white frequencies reaching over 80%. Morph frequencies among North Wales populations bear a similar relation to altitude but the increase in polymorphism occurs at about 1200 ft. In each case the general trend is that purple frequency declines with increase in white frequency, and that the frequency of intermediates shows a unimodal distribution with a quite precise peak. For both sets of populations this peak occurs at an altitude about 250 ft. higher than that at which the increase in white frequency occurs. It is possible that the occurrence of the polymorphism on seacliffs and mountains may be related to a limitation of cross pollination consequent upon the exposure of seacliffs and the combined climatic characteristics of mountains, which include increase in exposure, mist and rain and decrease in temperature. Evidence on the levels of outbreeding in these populations was inconclusive but evidence in other species suggested that pollination might indeed be limited in these conditions. An increase in homozygosity consequent upon inbreeding would promote the frequency of the white morphs. Moreover the white morphs were subject to preferential pollination and both this and certain forms of heterogeneity in morph distribution were likely to promote the frequency of inbreeding among white morphs. However in conditions of limited pollination the degree of general outbreeding of the white morphs will be increased by preferential pollination and this may be assumed to be a fitness advantage which may be of particular importance in the maintenance of the polymorphism. In addition it is likely that the presence of white morphs within a population may result in the attraction of higher numbers of pollinators or encourage foraging for longer periods in which case the polymorphism may be said to be adaptive in the sense of Fisher (1930). Other selective effects are also apparent. The occasional presence of highly polymorphic populations in valley bases and the regular occurrence of predominantly purple populations in mountain forests may both to some extent provide evidence for an effect of temperature other than upon pollination. Some evidence suggests that both exposure and moisture may also be of individual importance. Selection was apparent even by the arrangement of morph types within a population subject to no obvious environmental heterogeneity. It is possible that the polymorphism is maintained by a physiological heterozygous advantage and that this may be responsible for the maintenance of white and intermediate morphs in low frequency in the predominantly purple populations of inland lowland regions. The maintenance of the polymorphism imposed a significant selective mortality upon the species. This was indicated by the above instance of selection within a uniform community and also in several instances in which intrapopulational selection occurred between segments of population subject to differing exposure. However the growth in cultivation of seeds set in natural populations revealed that the complexity of the genetic system was sufficient to allow widely different morph frequencies to be maintained in different populations without the necessity of high selection in each generation.

The purposes of the study were as follows: first, to study the literature in the field of teaching drafting with special reference to the use of instructional aides in presenting orthographic projection concerning the use of a projection box; second, to ascertain the value of the use of a tri-color projection box in teaching orthographic projection to an experimental group of students at the R. L. Turner High School, Carrollton, Texas; and third, to determine if an analysis of these data indicates a justification for the use of this type of an instructional aid in teaching orthographic projection.

The problem with which this study was concerned was that of developing wood stain formulas from a small supply of materials. These formulas should produce a wide variety of colors from which to select, the use of which should be suited to the school or home laboratory.

Thirty years of empirical research on visual aids have produced inconsistent results--perhaps because the quality and color of those visuals were inconsistent. The purpose of this study was to determine what effects quality and color of instructional transparencies used in an informative speech have on listener recall and attitudes toward speaker and speech. A total of 709 community college and university students in 36 intact classes were randomly assigned to one of four visual treatment groups (poor-quality black/white, high-quality black/white, poor-quality color, or high-quality color) or one of two control groups (no-speech or no-visuals). A videotaped speech was projected onto a large screen at the right of the room; visual aids (each shown for approximately 30 seconds) were projected onto another screen set immediately to the left. Recall was measured by a 10-item multiple choice test; attitude toward speech and speaker were each measured by six seven-item semantic differential scales. Analysis of variance indicated that the type of transparencies used in an informative speech have a definite effect on immediate recall and attitude toward the speech, but no effect on attitude toward speaker. All four treatment groups scored significantly higher on recall than the no-speech and no-visual control groups. Log percent of change showed poor color to produce the lowest scores (still 13% better than control) and quality color to produce the highest scores (19.5'% better). Analysis found listeners to have a more positive attitude toward the speech when quality color, quality black/white, or poor black/white visuals were used. It appears that any visual (even a poor quality one) produces better recall than no visuals. Speakers with the time to produce quality visuals should add color; speakers who pay little attention to quality would be advised to use black/white visuals. Implications for future research are suggested.

In creating my work I use bold, bright colors and fundamental shapes and patterns. My images reflect how I view the world and genuinely express my imagination, feelings, and thinking. Working this way allows me to apply a symbolic face to personal concerns, beliefs, fears, ideologies, and philosophies. I see a world where life and art blend to create images of triumph and tragedy, joy and pain, or growth and change. My ideas have grown from the desire to understand myself as a woman, as a Christian, and as a unique individual. Dealing with personal questions, I explore the varying relationships between popular culture and self-perception. Another source for my work are philosophical themes, along with political and social commentary. I want my messages to not only touch the heart and soul of people but convey a message that they will remember.

Predators select for defensive adaptations, such as stings, toxins, and camouflage color patterns. Madtoms, Noturus, are diminutive catfishes with dorsal and pectoral stings. Thirteen of the 25 nominal species have serrated spines in the pectoral sting and a contrasting pigment pattern. Behavior of two saddled species, N. miurus and N. hildebrandi, and one uniformly colored species, N. leptacanthus, was investigated to test if the pigment pattern is camouflage. Saddle spacing and crypticity of the saddled species were measured against various substrates and were found to be unevenly spaced, which could be camouflage when viewed against gravel. Given substrate choices, madtoms preferred gravel during daylight conditions. In subsequent experiments, all species were given colored gravel to test color vs. texture-based substrate choice and preferred dark substrates. In the presence of a predator stimulus, madtoms preferred gravel at night and dawn. The pigment pattern likely is camouflage when viewed against gravel substrates.

This paper examines the generational changes in the culture and racial self-identification of Creoles of Color of New Orleans. This study argues that the key to understanding Creole culture is the role that isolationism has played in its history. While White ethnics pursued a path of assimilation, Creoles of Color pursued a path of isolationism. This path served them well during the Jim Crow era, but it suddenly became undesirable during the Black Power era. Now, however, new values of multiculturalism have resurrected Creole identity as a cultural asset.

O propósito deste trabalho foi avaliar, in-vitro, a alteração de cor da cerâmica de dissilicato de lítio (IPS e.max Ivoclar Vivadent AG), variando-se os seguintes aspectos: processo de confecção (cerâmica monolítica e com a infraestrutura coberta por cerâmica de revestimento), espessura da cerâmica (1,5 e 2,0mm) e substrato (resina e liga metálica), com e sem cimento. Para isso foram confeccionadas 40 pastilhas de cerâmica IPS e.max Press (Ivoclar Vivadent AG), que foram divididas em 2 grupos (n=20): LT (cerâmica de baixa translucidez na cor A2) e HO (cerâmica de alta opacidade). Neste último grupo, as pastilhas foram confeccionadas com 0,5mm de espessura revestidas com cerâmica IPS e.max Ceram na cor A2 (Ivoclar Vivadent AG) com espessuras de 1,0 e 1,5mm. Foram utilizados substratos em resina composta (n=20) e liga metálica (n=20). Para o substrato em resina foi empregada a resina Filtek® Z250 XT, na cor A2 (3M ESPE) e para o substrato em liga metálica foi utilizado a liga de cobre-alumínio (Goldent L.A,). Para a cimentação foi utilizado o cimento de polimerização dual, Variolink II, (Ivoclar Vivadent AG), na cor translúcida. A leitura da cor foi realizada em um espectrofotômetro (Minolta CM2600d), equipado com fonte de luz padrão D65 (luz do dia). A cor determinada no aparelho é expressa em coordenadas CIE L* a* b* e os valores correspondentes foram utilizados para calcular o &#x394;E. Foram feitas comparações do grupo somente com a cerâmica (controle) versus os grupos cerâmica-substrato sem e com cimento; e dos grupos cerâmica-substrato sem cimento (controle) versus cerâmica-substrato com cimento. Os dados foram submetidos a análise estatística (ANOVA e teste de Tukey, p<0,05). Quando foram comparados o grupo somente com a cerâmica (controle) versus os grupos cerâmicasubstrato sem e com cimento, os resultados mostraram que o menor valor (&#x394;E=3,0) foi o do grupo HOA2 com 2mm de espessura, substrato de metal e sem cimento; o maior valor encontrado (&#x394;E=10,0) foi do grupo LTA2 com 1,5mm de espessura, com substrato de metal e com cimento. Esta diferença foi estatisticamente significante. E quando foram comparados os grupos cerâmica-substrato sem cimento (controle) versus cerâmica-substrato com cimento os resultados apontaram que o grupo que teve menor influência do cimento foi o HOA2 com 1,5mm de espessura e substrato de resina (&#x394;E=1,1); o grupo que teve maior influência do cimento foi o LTA2 com 1,5mm de espessura e com substrato de metal (&#x394;E=6,4). Esta diferença foi estatisticamente significante. Dentro das limitações deste estudo, concluiu-se que as variáveis pesquisadas o processo de confecção e a espessura da cerâmica, a cor do substrato e a presença do cimento, influenciaram significativamente na cor da cerâmica. / The purpose of this study was to evaluate in vitro, the color change of the ceramic lithium disilicate (IPS e.max - Ivoclar Vivadent AG), varying the following aspects: manufacture process (monolithic ceramic and the infrastructure with ceramic covering), the thickness of the ceramic (1.5 and 2.0 mm) and the abutment substrate (composite resin and alloy), with and without cement. Forty discs were fabricated with ceramic IPS e.max Press (Ivoclar Vivadent AG), which were divided into two groups (n = 20): LT (low translucency, shade A2) and HO (high opacity). In the latter group, the discs were fabricated with a 0.5 mm thickness with the IPS e.max Ceram ceramic covering, shade A2 (Ivoclar Vivadent AG) with 1.0 and 1.5 mm thicknesses. The abutments substrates were composite resin (n = 20) and alloy (n = 20). The composite resin substrate was made with the Filtek Z250 XT ®, shade A2 (3M ESPE) and the metallic alloy substrate was made with aluminum-copper alloy (Goldent LA). The cementation was realized with dual cure cement Variolink II, translucent color (Ivoclar Vivadent AG). The color was measured in a spectrophotometer (Minolta CM2600d) equipped with a D65 light (daylight). The color determined on the equipment is expressed in coordinates CIE L * a * b *, and those values were used to calculate the &#x394;E. The comparisons were only made between the ceramic groups (control) versus the ceramic-substrate with and without cement; and the ceramic-substrate without cement groups (control) versus the ceramic-substrate with cement. The data were subjected to statistical analysis (ANOVA and Tukey test, p < 0.05). When the comparisons between the groups were only the ceramic (control) versus the ceramic-substrate groups, without and with cement, the results showed that the smallest value (&#x394;E=3.0) of the HOA2 group with 2 mm of thickness, metal substrate and without cement; the largest value found (&#x394;E=10.0) was that of the LTA2 group with a 1.5 mm thickness, with a metal substrate and with cement. This difference was statistically significant. When the comparisons were between the ceramic-substrate without cement groups (control) versus the ceramic-substrate with cement groups, the results showed that the group that had less influence of the cement was the HOA2 group with a 1.5 mm thickness with a composite resin substrate (&#x394;E=1.1). The group that had the greatest influence of the cement was the LTA2 with a 1.5 mm thickness and with a metal substrate (&#x394;E=6.4). This difference was statistically significant. Within the limitations of this study, it is concluded that the studied variables - the manufacture process and the thickness of ceramic, the color of the abutment substrate and the presence of the cement has a significant influence on the color of the ceramic.