The research contained in this thesis involves three interdisciplinary dimensions: Distance Language Education (DLE) as the context of the research, videoconferencing as the technology, and the provision of oral and visual interaction in DLE as the core research problem. Though DLE is increasingly gaining importance at the start of 21st century, the inadequate provision of real-time oral-visual interaction still remains a major deficiency. To be more precise, DLE is still producing language learners who cannot speak the target language. I have outlined the urgency in solving this problem (Wang, 2004a), and it is precisely this urgency that grounds this research. This thesis therefore aims to answer the following central research question: in what ways is oral-visual interaction via videoconferencing able to facilitate L2 acquisition at a distance? In the course of answering the central research question, the following subsidiary questions are closely investigated: 1. What are the needs of distance learners in terms of L2 acquisition? 2. What are the benefits and limitations of videoconferencing-supported oral and visual interaction in the process of L2 acquisition? 3. What are the implications and potential of such interaction for L2 acquisition in distance mode? This thesis is set against a background of research on the importance of interaction in second language (L2) acquisition and the capabilities of Computer Mediated Communication (CMC). Interaction has been regarded as an integral part of communicative language learning, which promotes L2 acquisition (see Gass, 2003; Hall, 1995; Kitade, 2000; Lantolf, 1994; Mitchell & Myles, 1998; Ohta, 1995; Swain & Lapkin,1995). However, the preliminary study in this research established that, in the context of DLE, this interactive dimension has been inadequately provided, and that distance language learners do need an improved platform for L2 acquisition, especially in terms of acquiring speaking skills. The distance factor in distance language education calls for the employment of technology as a medium to provide an interactive platform for oral and visual interaction. Thus, the empirical dimension of this research, involving the participation of both on-campus and distance language learners, witnesses a two-stage evaluation of a particular Internet-based desktop videoconferencing tool, NetMeeting. In this evaluation, NetMeeting was used to conduct videoconferencing sessions, in which the teacher and participants could see and hear each other during the completion of meaning-based tasks. A great deal of original data was collected from the qualitative evaluation in regard to the benefits and limitations of videoconferencing-supported oral and visual interaction in the process of L2 acquisition in distance mode. This evaluation is approached from two aspects: the technological capabilities and pedagogical values of videoconferencing. Recommendations on the use of videoconferencing and videoconferencing task designs are proposed on the basis of the research findings. These recommendations are highly significant for practitioners in this field. Following Murray (1999), a combination of data collection methods was employed in an attempt to effectively explore the scope and depth of the participants' learning experience through videoconferencing. These methods include pre- and post-trial written surveys, in-depth post-session and post-trial interviews, videotaped videoconferencing sessions and the researcher's personal observation. Qualitative data analysis methods were adopted. Particularly important is the use of Varonis and Gass's (1985) model for analysing the negotiation routines during meaning-based task completion. The contributions of this research are manifold. Theoretically, the research updates key definitions in DLE and CMC in keeping with recent developments in each respective field. In so doing, this thesis puts forward a theory of an emerging fourth generation DLE with synchronous oral-visual interaction as its defining feature (Wang & Sun, 2001), and also proposes a new taxonomy in CMC (Wang, 2004). Both theories categorize more precisely the different roles played by different technologies and their implications for different learner goals. Empirically, this research first develops criteria for selecting appropriate videoconferencing tools (Wang & Sun, 2001) and criteria for evaluating the appropriateness of videoconferencing tasks. These two sets of criteria were then applied in the two-stage evaluation of NetMeeting, yielding useful data (Wang, 2004a; Wang, 2004b). This research also contributes to our understanding of videoconferencing task design and performance principles. The significant findings from this research confirm that Internet-based desktop videoconferencing is capable of supporting oral-visual interaction in DLE and leads to significant improvements in L2 acquisition. Most importantly, this study informs future research into the nature of oral-visual interaction enabled by videoconferencing by demonstrating how and in what ways such interaction facilitates L2 acquisition. The rapid development of computer technology makes publishing the contributions of this study an ongoing part of this research, in order to maintain the originality of this study. Some of the findings have been published in top-ranking international journals (see Wang and Sun, 2001; Wang, 2004a; Wang, 2004b). This study addresses a real and urgent need in distance language learning - the provision of oral-visual interaction. Findings from this research shed light on many issues untreated in the literature and in the practices of DLE. They also point to possible future trends in the globalisation of education because the effects of the pedagogical distance between the learner and education provider may be neutralized, or at least, minimized, through the use of CMC.

<p><p>The Internet is in many cases our primary source for communication. As more communicative options online are introduced and become a part of our life, the language of the Internet, so called Netspeak, becomes a part of our language. The aim of this paper was to find out whether there is a difference in the use of Netspeak between teenagers and adults. The investigation was based on two message boards, one where the majority is teenagers and one where the majority is adults. Four different features of Netspeak were studied: exaggerated use of punctuation; exaggerated use of capital letters; abbreviations; and emoticons. All features are substitutes for paralanguage.</p><p>The results show that teenagers are more likely to use features such as exaggerated use of punctuation and capitals, and abbreviations. Adults are, however, more likely to use emoticons than teenagers.</p></p>

Cell phones and the Internet have become cornerstones in the daily lives of most Americans. Researchers have rigorously studied numerous dimensions of electronically mediated communication (EMC). Yet, very little research has explored the context and consequences of negotiating multiple forms of EMC within everyday life. The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of everyday forms of electronically mediated communication (EvEMC) – cell phone talk, text messages, instant messages, and email – on self-work, particularly within personal relationships. Results of OLS regression analyses of survey data collected from 617 college students and qualitative data analysis of three subsequent focus groups suggested that negotiating personal relationships with and within EvEMC produces a sense of interstitial copresence, which is an awareness of the convergence of perpetual copresence within a digital environment and presence or copresence within a physical environment. The findings suggested that interstitial copresence is inherently Janus-faced. EvEMC provided people with a strong sense of freedom and control. However, negotiating personal relationships within interstitial copresence resulted in dissolution of relational boundaries. Consequently, deceptive tactics were commonly used to negotiate self-presentation within interstitial copresence, which had consequences for people’s self-appraisals as well. Since important others were expected to be accessible virtually anytime and anywhere, people with a strong sense of interstitial copresence often had an adverse emotional reaction when important others did not answer their calls or quickly reply to their messages or call or send messages regularly. As personal relationships negotiated within interstitial copresence move toward totality, the consequences for both the self and the relationships become more pronounced. Ultimately, the study concludes that self-work with and within interstitial copresence produces an interstitial self – a relational self that is, at all times, situated within a physical environment and a digital environment, yet never completely in either environment.

The purpose of this feminist critical discourse analysis was to uncover whether or not, and how, muteness of female-preferential voice occurs within written organizational computer-mediated communication. Qualitative textual analysis was used to analyze 18 discussion forums from three voluntary professional associations representing highly male-populated (mechanical engineering), gender neutral (training and development), and highly female-populated (nursing) industries. Discussion posting participants were categorized for using male-preferential (MP), female-preferential (FP), or neutral (N) language. MP and FP interactions were then analyzed for themes of muting and muteness. Seven major findings within three analytic categories emerged from this study. First, with regards to preferential language use by industry site, all three sites’ participants used FP language more than MP language. In fact, 158 of the 246 total participants were categorized as FP language users and 17 of the 18 forums were initiated by a FP participant. Additionally, although overall, modals and hedges were the most prevalent FP language characteristics and opinions were the most prevalent MP language characteristic, this differed across industry site. Implications for scaling preferential language dimensions along a continuum from highly feminine to highly masculine are discussed. Second, regarding strategies of maintaining male dominance (muting), it was found that MP language dimensions were used more often by MP participants when interacting with FP participants. Themes of muting strategies such as overstating one’s knowledge base were found in MP language. FP participants, on the other hand, cloak their opinions in subordinating language; thus understating their knowledge. This context allows MP language users to trivialize FP language users’ postings. Additionally, the use of masculine pronouns was equal to the use of feminine pronouns despite the majority of FP participants; and FP participants were overwhelmingly more likely to use masculine pronouns that MP participants were likely to use feminine pronouns. Finally, with regards to strategies of FP communication during interactions with MP language users (muteness), FP participants engaged mostly in respectful communication as a strategy to communicate. The communication strategy used least was confrontation. An emergent strategy of communication was the increased use of metaphors by FP participants when interacting with MP participants.

This thesis is a part of a project, “Interactive Learning in Distance Education”, funded by The Swedish Research Council. The overall purpose was, from adult distance learners’ perspective, to describe, analyse and understand factors influencing studies and interactive learning in asynchronous computer-mediated learning environments. Da¬ta were collected in 2003; from 62 students (56 women and six men) attending an undergraduate and a supplementary distance cour¬se within the teacher training program. The study was based on questionnaires, diaries, portfolios, interviews and transcriptions of students’ postings to the computer conferences FirstClass and Web¬Board, respectively. The courses included campus meetings and individual studies accompanied by study guides containing reading instructions, timetables and individual as well as group-related assign¬ments. Asynchronous text-based, computer-mediated commu¬nication (CMC) was used for dialogue among the participants. The results indicate that difficulties to combine studies with commitments in the students’ everyday lives and lack of familiarity with higher education and computer mediated distance education constituted learning obstacles. Almost everyone emphasised the importance of communicaion with peer students for feeling satisfied in the study and learning situation. They appreciated the asynchronous text-based CMC because it increased the flexibility of the studies. The students´ online behaviour and statements also indicate feelings of social presence and solidarity with peer learners, despite using a medium with relatively low capacity to convey social cues. Female and male students described similar difficulties of combining family, work and study. Women sho¬wed lower self-esteem in terms of computer skills and coping with their studies. They highlighted the social importance of the studygroup to a higher extent than the men did. The ideal course design in terms of structure, dialogue and autonomy altered depending on students´ perceptions of benefits. They wanted flexibility and autonomy to be able to combine the studies with commitments in their everyday life, at the same time they appreciated elements of structure and governance in situations when these involved saving of time. The communication in the computer conferences was extensive but the analysis of the learners’ contributions provides little evidence of effective collaborative learning activities. Several reasons to this were discussed, e.g. students´ lack of time and knowledge to form functioning learning communities, as well as insufficient course design to promote and support collaborative distance learning. It was concluded that there is a gap between teachers' ambitions to create an interactive learning environment on the one hand, and students´ skills, attitudes to collaboration and need to share their time between studies and other commitments on the other. Also, teachers´ ambitions to develop distance education aiming at collaboration and interactive learning are often hampered by their limited skills and time frames to design and implement such courses. / Interactive Learning in Distance Education

Social media has created a two-pronged dilemma for the journalism world. On one side is an attack of the basic notions of identity and authority for an age-old profession while on the other side supporting journalists by making available an endless amount of new tools and resources for them to work with. This thesis establishes and examines the online community of practice that has formed in the crosshair of the two sides, where the future of newspapers is a hotly debated subject. Using innovative data collection, the conversations of 20 experts is studied qualitatively through computer mediated discourse analysis to examine and explore the debate while providing consideration of the key issues to allow for an in-depth study.

Research studies demonstrate that L2 learners participate more equally when using synchronous computer mediated communication (CMC). However, most of these studies have involved adult students only, in college or university settings. Few have explored the use of synchronous CMC with elementary school learners. Thus, this case study explored the participation of Grade 8 native speakers and English language learners as they interacted in the online environment. It examined the number of turns taken by each participant, the discourse functions used, as well as participants’ perceptions of communicating online. This was accomplished through collection of chat transcripts, questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. It was found that native speakers tended to take more turns in online discussions. Also, responses and questions were the discourse functions that were used most by participants in this research. Finally, the students viewed this mode of communication favourably, and believed that it aided their communication with one another.

Computer-mediated communication (CMC), such as electronic mail and newsgroups, is quickly becoming a pervasive interpersonal communication means. The general research purpose of the present study is to investigate the communicative strategies individuals use to maintain exclusively Internet-based friendships and the extent to which cultural, relational and channel-related factors may affect the use of these strategies. A total of 136 Chinese Internet users and 134 American Internet users completed an online survey that measured maintenance strategies that they used for sustaining a friendship that they had developed on the Internet, their online friendship relational experience (relational and partner certainty and relational equity), and communication channel-related variables (perceived social presence of the Internet and anticipation of face-to-face interactions in the near future). Participants were also asked to think of an offline “real-life” friendship and to answer questions about relational maintenance strategies used for sustaining this friendship. The results suggested that overall people use more prosocial relational maintenance strategies in their offline friendships than in their online friendship. However, this pattern was moderated by friendship status. The gap of frequencies of relational maintenance strategies in online and offline friendships was particularly large for casual friendships. With regard to antisocial maintenance strategies, participants reported more coercion/criticism in offline friendships but more deception in online friendships. Consistent with the prior findings concerning cultural variations in relational maintenance, the current study found that the American participants more frequently used prosocial maintenance strategies than did the Chinese participants in both online and offline friendships. On the other hand, the Chinese participants were more likely to use all types antisocial maintenance strategies than their American counterparts in both online and offline friendships. The result of the current study confirmed that varied degrees of relational uncertainty and relational equity are associated with the use of relational maintenance strategies. The findings also indicated the impact of communication channel-related factors on online friendship maintenance strategies. In sum, the findings of this cross-cultural study lent credence to the view that meaningful relationships are maintained via CMC. This study has added knowledge about ways this new technology used in sustaining relationships across different national cultures.

This study explored why individuals write personal blogs and the influences of blogging on their lives. Four structural equation models that specified the social and psychological process of blogging were tested in this study. The models included four major components: personal characteristics, blogging motives, blogging behaviors and blogging social outcomes. A total of 412 bloggers recruited online completed the survey questionnaire. A factor analysis revealed nine salient motives for writing personal blogs: self-documentation, information sharing, entertainment, emotion regulation, communication with existing friends, formation of new friendships, identity exploration, pass time and self-presentation. Significant associations between these motives and demographics, including gender, age and education, were also identified. The results of the structural equation modeling suggested that public self-consciousness was positively related to the self-presentation motive, which was in turn positively related to self-presentation in blogs. In the same vein, social anxiety was positively related to the motive to form new friendships, which in turn was positively related to the number of new friends made via blogs and the quality of new friendships. Social anxiety was found to be negatively associated with the number of new friends made, the number of existing friends communicated with, and the quality of existing friendships maintained through blogs, but positively related to the quality of new friendships established via blogs. Self-disclosure was positively related to the number of new friends made, the quality of new friendships and the quality of existing friendships. The mediation effects of blogging motivations and self-disclosure on the relationships between social anxiety and blogging social interaction outcomes were also tested. The content analysis of the responses to an open-ended question indicated that the majority of the respondents believed that blogging had positively influenced their lives. The major benefits of blogging reported by the respondents included keeping in touch with family and friends, making new friends, improved social interaction, writing and thinking ability, expanded vision, emotional relief and social support, identity exploration, and documentation of daily life. Interpretations of the findings, and implications for understanding the social use of the Internet, were discussed.

The purpose of this thesis was to study some women's participation in two different kinds of computerised further education organised as distance edu­cation. Both groups used the FirstClass conference system as a tool for bridging distances. One was a university program for teachers in special education and the other was a computerised Network for professional special education teachers, run by the members. The dissertation was grounded in feminist theory and in a socio-cultural perspective on learning. The empirical material consists of questionnaires, interviews and analysis of the communi­cation in both computer conferences. The result showed that the women appreciated the opportunity to study at a distance. They enjoyed the flexibil­ity in time and space and the opportunity to be a part of a fellowship. There were great differences in the pattern of communication and the contents in the two settings. In the Special Education Programme the communication was regular and the inputs were usually related to the literature and examina­tion issues. In the Network the communication was more sporadic. The in­puts were usually short and consisted mostly of information. The contribu­tions in both settings were generally univocal and usually they did not show that the individual participants developed new pedagogical perspectives or views related to the actual question. This investigation showed that it was difficult to establish discussions and co-operation via the computer, espe­cially in the Network. However the women were satisfied with the continu­ing education and felt that the written communication via the computer con­ferences developed their knowledge in special pedagogy and helped them to reflect upon their work as special education teachers. Distance education could however become a gender-trap as it was found to allow the women to combine unpaid work in the family with both paid work and studies. / digitalisering@umu