Autism Spectrum Disorder is a developmental disability characterized by social, behavioral, and communicative impairments. A primary characteristic of Autism includes impairment in social skills. Along the same lines, praise, defined as approval or admiration, does not always function as a reinforcer for this population. One way to address the absence of a reinforcement effect for praise is to condition praise as a reinforcer. The literature on conditioned reinforcement encompasses many procedural variations that have been shown to increase the reinforcing value of neutral stimuli. One such variation relatively new to the conditioned reinforcement literature includes observational conditioning. With observational conditioning, initially neutral stimulus are established as reinforcers through observation of others receiving an initially neural stimulus, contingent on some response, while the same neutral stimulus is restricted to the observer for engagement the same response. Few component analyses of observational conditioning procedures have been conducted. Identification of its key aspects and further clarification of its generality will improve understanding of the effect and lead to more reliable clinical endpoints. Given this, and the need for procedures focused on conditioning praise as a reinforcer for individuals with Autism, the purpose of the current proposal was twofold. The purpose of Study 1 was to compare the effects of the observational conditioning procedure to observational conditioning plus response restriction in children diagnosed with Autism. The purpose of Study 2 was to assess the effects of observational conditioning plus response restriction to condition praise as a reinforcer in children diagnosed with Autism.

The purpose of the present research was to examine extinction of responding with regard to the rapidity and thoroughness of the process when conditioned reinforcement was available on one of five schedules during extinction. Forty-five mixed-breed pigeons served as subjects with 15 in each of three experiments. Reinforcement training schedules were as follows: Experiment 1, continuous; Experiment 2, fixed ratio 15; Experiment 3, variable-interval one-minute. After training, subjects experienced one of five extinction procedures (here called schedules of extinction) which were as follows: traditional schedule without keylight did not provide conditioned reinforcement; traditional with keylight had the keylight on continuously but withheld other conditioned reinforcement (no schedule, per se, was used); the remaining three schedules (i.e., continuous, fixed ratio 15, and variable-interval one-minute) provided the following four conditioned reinforcers: the sound of the food magazine, the hopper light, the sight of food, and the keylight. Predictions for responding were based on the discrimination hypothesis which states that the more alike training and extinction conditions are, the slower the process of extinction. In order to compare response rates among subjects, a percentage of baseline responding was computed. Four spontaneous recovery tests were conducted to measure the thoroughness of the extinction procedures. Results did not support predictions based on the discrimination hypothesis; that is, subject response rates did not appear to be affected by the similarity of the extinction condition to previous training history. The second finding was that the most rapid and thorough extinction was obtained when the extinction schedule was traditional without keylight. When conditioned reinforcement was available, the continuous extinction schedule produced the most rapid and thorough extinction. The third major finding was that the schedule of unconditioned reinforcement was more predictive of extinction responding than was the conditioned reinforcement schedule during extinction. The last finding was that a subject's pattern of responding was typical of the schedule whether it was on an unconditioned or a conditioned reinforcement schedule. It is suggested that extinction-of-a-human-intervention strategies might be more effective if conditioned reinforcement was identified and controlled.

Many efforts in teaching children with autism are focused on increasing the value of praise as a reward for work. Increasing the value of praise can help children with autism to work in a natural setting, without requiring constant rewards of food or toys for work. In this study, I analyzed a pairing method—a technique of providing verbal praise while simultaneously providing a food reward—to assess whether it would result in an increased value for praise for participants in the study. First, a baseline phase was conducted in which praise statements were provided as a reward for a certain task to see how quickly participants would engage in the task. In the next phase, a pairing condition was implemented in which participants were prompted to engage in the same task; food was provided along with praise as a reward for working on the given task. Finally, during the test phase, praise was again provided as the sole reward for the task, and I measured how quickly participants worked on the task to evaluate whether the value of praise had been increased. During the test phase two participants continued to engage in the task relatively quickly, suggesting that the value of praise had been increased for these two participants.

Interventions based on a token economy effectively reduce problematic behavior. Yet, treatment gains deteriorate once an intervention is discontinued. It is important to better understand the persistence of behavior maintained by token reinforcement in simple experimental procedures. A Pavlovian association with primary reinforcement is said to endow neutral stimuli (e.g., coins, poker chips, lights, signs, stickers, etc.) with their own function to strengthen behavior as conditioned reinforcers. Behavioral momentum theory suggests that resistance to change under conditions of disruption is the appropriate measure of response strength. However, some animal studies have suggested that conditioned reinforcement may not affect resistance to change of a response. Here, a novel token reinforcement procedure was developed to investigate the resistance to change of responding maintained by token reinforcement. Pigeons responded on a key to produce tokens displayed on a touchscreen monitor in two signaled token-production components. Tokens accumulated over the two production components prior to a common exchange component where pecks to the tokens on the touchscreen produced food reinforcement. Resistance to change of responding maintained by different rates of token reinforcement was assessed by disrupting baseline token-production responding with presession feeding. Token reinforcement rates had inconsistent effects on baseline token-production response rates. However, small effects of token reinforcement rate on resistance to change were found. Results provide weak support for a response-strengthening account of conditioned reinforcement and insightful directions for future studies of token reinforcement in related procedures.

Interventions based on a token economy effectively reduce problematic behavior. Yet, treatment gains deteriorate once an intervention is discontinued. It is important to better understand the persistence of behavior maintained by token reinforcement in simple experimental procedures. A Pavlovian association with primary reinforcement is said to endow neutral stimuli (e.g., coins, poker chips, lights, signs, stickers, etc.) with their own function to strengthen behavior as conditioned reinforcers. Behavioral momentum theory suggests that resistance to change under conditions of disruption is the appropriate measure of response strength. However, some animal studies have suggested that conditioned reinforcement may not affect resistance to change of a response. Here, a novel token reinforcement procedure was developed to investigate the resistance to change of responding maintained by token reinforcement. Pigeons responded on a key to produce tokens displayed on a touchscreen monitor in two signaled token-production components. Tokens accumulated over the two production components prior to a common exchange component where pecks to the tokens on the touchscreen produced food reinforcement. Resistance to change of responding maintained by different rates of token reinforcement was assessed by disrupting baseline token-production responding with presession feeding. Token reinforcement rates had inconsistent effects on baseline token-production response rates. However, small effects of token reinforcement rate on resistance to change were found. Results provide weak support for a response-strengthening account of conditioned reinforcement and insightful directions for future studies of token reinforcement in related procedures.

The area of perceptual decision-making research seeks to understand how our perception of the world affects our judgment. Laboratory investigations of perceptual decision-making concentrate on observers' ability to discriminate among stimuli and their biases towards reporting one stimulus more frequently than others. Choice theories assume that these performance measures are determined by generalization of reinforcement along both stimulus and response dimensions. Historically the majority of research has addressed situations in which the difference among stimuli and resulting consequences of a perceptual decision are static. Consequently, little is known about the dynamics of stimulus and response generalization. The present research investigated the dynamics of discrimination accuracy and response bias by frequently varying differences among stimuli and the outcomes for correct decisions. In Experiment 1, four rats responded in a two-stimulus, two-response detection procedure employing temporal stimuli (short vs. long houselight presentations). Sample stimulus difference was varied over two levels across experimental conditions. A rapid acquisition procedure was employed in which relative reinforcer frequency varied daily. Shifts in response bias were well described by a behavioral model of detection (Davison & Nevin, 1999). Within sessions, bias adjusted rapidly to current reinforcer ratios when the sample stimulus difference was large, but not when the difference was small. In Experiment 2, three rats responded in a five-stimulus, two-response detection procedure employing temporal stimuli. Relative reinforcer frequency was again varied daily. Control by current session reinforcer ratios increased rapidly within sessions in a nearly monotonic fashion. Furthermore, response bias following each sample stimulus was observed within the first few trials of an experimental session. The speed of changes in response bias, especially following an unreinforced probe stimulus, provide strong support for an effective reinforcement process and suggest that this process may operate at a trial-by-trial level. In Experiment 3, three rats responded in a six-stimulus, two-response classification procedure. A repeated-acquisition procedure was employed in which the relationship between classes of short and long sample stimuli and their respective correct comparison locations reversed every 15 sessions. After several reversals, the probabilities of reinforcement for correct classification were also manipulated. In the majority of conditions across subjects, response bias reached half-asymptotic levels more rapidly than did discrimination accuracy. These findings provide some support for a backward chaining account of the acquisition of signal detection performance. An attention-augmented behavioral detection model accurately described the acquisition data; however parameter estimates expressing the probability of attending to sample and comparison stimuli differed widely among subjects. The results of these experiments support the adaptation of dynamic research methodologies to the study of learning in perceptual decision-making tasks. Furthermore, discrimination performance and response bias adapt rapidly to frequent changes in reinforcement contingencies. Quantitative models formulated to describe static performance in detection procedures can be extended to predict dynamic performance. Some theoretical assumptions of these models were supported and others were violated. Overall, this research supports a renewed emphasis on learning in signal detection procedures and suggests that stable behavioral endpoints are at least as much a function of contingency variables as they are of sensory variables.

Attentional biases occur with various psychological disorders, including drugaddiction and anxiety. Conditioned reinforcement likely plays a role in maintainingattentional biases to stimuli associated with reinforcement for unwanted behavior. Theobserving-response procedure is considered a model of attending as reflected byresponding maintained by conditioned reinforcement. Effects of primary reinforcement on the persistence of observing have been studied in the framework of behavioral momentum theory. Studies have shown observing-responses to be more resistant tochange in contexts arranging relatively higher rates of primary reinforcement. Recently, behavioral momentum theory has been extended to describe the effects of primary reinforcement context in relapse phenomena. The present thesis aimed to extend research on the resistance to change of observing to animal models of relapse. Pigeons responded on a two-component multiple schedule of observing-response procedures. In a rich component, observing responses produced stimuli correlated with a high rate of variableinterval (VI) food reinforcement (Rich S+). In a lean component, observing responses produced stimuli correlated with a low rate of VI food reinforcement (Lean S+). Following stable performance, responding was extinguished by removing food and S+ presentations. After extinction, relapse was assessed by reinstatement tests consisting of response-independent presentations of food or S+. Replicating earlier results, observingand food-key responding was more resistant to extinction in the Rich component. Food reinstatement had no systematic effect on extinguished food- and observing-key responding. However, S+ reinstatement resulted in relapse of extinguished observingand food-key responding. Relapse during S+ reinstatement was greater in the Rich component than the Lean component. Reinstatement of responding by S+ presentations resulted in a greater overall increase in responding on the food-key relative to the observing-key. This result suggests that an important functional relationship between the presence of S+ stimuli and increased rates of primary reinforcement for food key responding remained intact during extinction. The results show that observing is susceptible to relapse, and the magnitude of relapse depends on baseline primary reinforcement rate in a context.

We used a multiple-baseline across participants and combined reversal and multielement design to assess the effects of contingent-token-reinforcement, compared to noncontingent-token-reinforcement, on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) exhibited by four preschool-aged children. Three children engaged in higher levels of MVPA when tokens were delivered contingent on MVPA compared to baseline (no token) and noncontingent-token conditions. Although MVPA was differentiated across contingent-token sessions and corresponding baseline (no token) control probes for three of the four participants, some variability was apparent. The present study demonstrated that the delivery of tokens contingent on MVPA can increase and maintain MVPA exhibited by preschool-aged children, resulting in more MVPA than in baseline conditions and conditions in which tokens are awarded without respect to MVPA.

O conceito de controle de estímulos é composto por dois processos correlatos, a discriminação operante e a generalização de estímulos. A relação entre a discriminação e a emissão da resposta de observação tem sido amplamente realizada. A relação entre a generalização e a emissão da resposta de observação, por outro lado, ainda carece de investigação empírica. O principal objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar a duração de fixações aos estímulos em testes de generalização compostos por variações nas dimensões de S+ e por variações nas dimensões de S-. Dez estudantes universitários foram expostos a um procedimento de discriminação sucessiva caracterizado por um esquema múltiplo VI / EXT. Três estímulos Gabor eram apresentados em formação triangular sobre um fundo preto. O estímulo com inclinação das linhas da grade de 45 cumpriu a função de S+, o de inclinação 135 função de S- e os estímulos com linhas horizontais e verticais eram irrelevantes em relação à tarefa. A Fase 1 do treino discriminativo caracterizou-se por um esquema Mult VI 1 seg \\ EXT durante o qual os estímulos discriminativos eram apresentados de forma semi randômica no vértice superior do triangulo. Durante a fase 2, o esquema foi alterado para Mult VI 2 seg \\ EXT e os estímulos alternavam de posição a cada componente. Em seguida ao treino discriminativo cinco participantes foram expostos a um teste de generalização, em extinção, compostos por estímulos de angulações de 15, 30, 45, 60 e 75, enquanto cinco participantes foram expostos a um teste de generalização composto por estímulos de angulações de 105, 120, 135 e 150. Os resultados do teste de generalização composto por variações de S+ demonstram a formação de gradientes de observação em forma de sino. Os resultados do teste de generalização, por outro lado, demonstram a formação de gradientes de observação achatados, em forma de sino e em forma de U. Estes resultados complementam o cenário de compreensão do processo de estabelecimento de controle de estímulos ao demonstrar a formação de gradientes de observação, além disto, indicam que testes de generalização podem ser utilizados como alternativa metodológica à investigação das funções dos estímulos discriminativos sobre a resposta de observação / Stimulus control is a concept based on two related processes, operant discrimination and stimulus generalization. The relation between operant discrimination and observing responses has been widely investigated, while the relation between stimulus generalization and observing responses still lacks empirical research. The aim of this project was to assess the duration of eye fixations during generalization tests on stimulus that were variations of S+ and variations of S-. Ten college students participated of a simple successive discrimination procedure with a Mult VI/EXT schedule. Three Gabor stimuli were arranged in a triangular shape over a black background. The S+ stimulus was the one with lines on a 45° slope and the S- was the one with lines on a 135° slope. Stimuli with vertical (90°) and horizontal (180°) lines were presented as part of the arrangement but were irrelevant to the task. In Phase 1, discriminative training was conducted using a Mult VI 1 s/EXT schedule with S+ and S- alternating in a semi-random sequence on the upper corner of the triangular arrangement. During Phase 2, the schedule changed to Mult VI 2 s/EXT and the position of the S+ and S- varied over the three corners of the triangle in each component. After completing the discriminative training, five participants were exposed to a generalization test, in extinction, with variations from S+, where stimuli of 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, and 75° were presented. The remaining five participants were exposed to the generation test with stimuli varying from S-, with stimuli of 105°, 120°, 135°, and 150°. Results from the generalization test with variations from S+ show bell-shaped gradients of observing response with peak near S+ and lessened at slopes more distant from S+. On the other hand, gradients from the test conducted with variations from S- were variable, producing flat gradients, bell-shaped, and u-shaped gradients. These results add to the comprehension of stimulus control process by showing gradients of observing behavior and suggest that generalization tests could be used as an alternative to study the role of discriminative stimulus for the observing response

O conceito de controle de estímulos é composto por dois processos correlatos, a discriminação operante e a generalização de estímulos. A relação entre a discriminação e a emissão da resposta de observação tem sido amplamente realizada. A relação entre a generalização e a emissão da resposta de observação, por outro lado, ainda carece de investigação empírica. O principal objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar a duração de fixações aos estímulos em testes de generalização compostos por variações nas dimensões de S+ e por variações nas dimensões de S-. Dez estudantes universitários foram expostos a um procedimento de discriminação sucessiva caracterizado por um esquema múltiplo VI / EXT. Três estímulos Gabor eram apresentados em formação triangular sobre um fundo preto. O estímulo com inclinação das linhas da grade de 45 cumpriu a função de S+, o de inclinação 135 função de S- e os estímulos com linhas horizontais e verticais eram irrelevantes em relação à tarefa. A Fase 1 do treino discriminativo caracterizou-se por um esquema Mult VI 1 seg \\ EXT durante o qual os estímulos discriminativos eram apresentados de forma semi randômica no vértice superior do triangulo. Durante a fase 2, o esquema foi alterado para Mult VI 2 seg \\ EXT e os estímulos alternavam de posição a cada componente. Em seguida ao treino discriminativo cinco participantes foram expostos a um teste de generalização, em extinção, compostos por estímulos de angulações de 15, 30, 45, 60 e 75, enquanto cinco participantes foram expostos a um teste de generalização composto por estímulos de angulações de 105, 120, 135 e 150. Os resultados do teste de generalização composto por variações de S+ demonstram a formação de gradientes de observação em forma de sino. Os resultados do teste de generalização, por outro lado, demonstram a formação de gradientes de observação achatados, em forma de sino e em forma de U. Estes resultados complementam o cenário de compreensão do processo de estabelecimento de controle de estímulos ao demonstrar a formação de gradientes de observação, além disto, indicam que testes de generalização podem ser utilizados como alternativa metodológica à investigação das funções dos estímulos discriminativos sobre a resposta de observação / Stimulus control is a concept based on two related processes, operant discrimination and stimulus generalization. The relation between operant discrimination and observing responses has been widely investigated, while the relation between stimulus generalization and observing responses still lacks empirical research. The aim of this project was to assess the duration of eye fixations during generalization tests on stimulus that were variations of S+ and variations of S-. Ten college students participated of a simple successive discrimination procedure with a Mult VI/EXT schedule. Three Gabor stimuli were arranged in a triangular shape over a black background. The S+ stimulus was the one with lines on a 45° slope and the S- was the one with lines on a 135° slope. Stimuli with vertical (90°) and horizontal (180°) lines were presented as part of the arrangement but were irrelevant to the task. In Phase 1, discriminative training was conducted using a Mult VI 1 s/EXT schedule with S+ and S- alternating in a semi-random sequence on the upper corner of the triangular arrangement. During Phase 2, the schedule changed to Mult VI 2 s/EXT and the position of the S+ and S- varied over the three corners of the triangle in each component. After completing the discriminative training, five participants were exposed to a generalization test, in extinction, with variations from S+, where stimuli of 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, and 75° were presented. The remaining five participants were exposed to the generation test with stimuli varying from S-, with stimuli of 105°, 120°, 135°, and 150°. Results from the generalization test with variations from S+ show bell-shaped gradients of observing response with peak near S+ and lessened at slopes more distant from S+. On the other hand, gradients from the test conducted with variations from S- were variable, producing flat gradients, bell-shaped, and u-shaped gradients. These results add to the comprehension of stimulus control process by showing gradients of observing behavior and suggest that generalization tests could be used as an alternative to study the role of discriminative stimulus for the observing response