The aim of this thesis is to study trust in military leaders. Empirical data was gathered through interviews and questionnaires with military personnel mostly from Sweden, but also from four other European countries. Paper I illustrates that trust in military leaders can be theoretically understood in terms of a hierarchical system of categories, higher-level categories and two superior categories labelled Individual-related and Communication- and relationship-related characteristics. Paper II examines how trust between military leaders and their subordinates is related to negative critical incidents in international operations. The results show that trust can be affected by pre-existing influences, of both an individual and contextual nature. The level of trust that develops between leaders and subordinates appears to have an influence on perceptions and re-evaluations of leaders’ trustworthiness during and after involvement in critical incidents. In Paper III, an instrument, Destrudo-L, was developed to measure destructive leadership behaviours on five different dimensions: Arrogant, unfair, Threats, punishments, overdemands, Ego-oriented, false, Passive, cowardly, and Uncertain, unclear, messy. In Paper IV the relationship between constructive and destructive leadership behaviours and trust is examined. The results show that constructive leadership contributed most to trust in the immediate supervisor. A great deal of trust in immediate supervisors can be understood by evaluating both constructive and destructive leadership behaviours. This thesis contributes with context-specific knowledge on trust in leaders in a military context and knowledge of psychological processes and individual dispositions that shape and change the willingness to trust leaders. The main findings presented in this thesis are the identification of characteristics of the trustor, the trustee, and the context which influences trust in military leaders.

Fenomenet ledarskap har sedan länge intresserat forskare från en mängd olika discipliner. Främst har fokus varit på att finna ett allmängiltigt normerande grundrecept utifrån rationella ansatser. Trots en stor mängd vetenskapliga studier, främst baserade på kvantitativt underlag, återstår frågor av mellanmänsklig natur. I sökandet efter det goda och konstruktiva ledarskapet har forskningen den senaste tiden allt mer intresserat sig för fenomenet tillit. Den här studien syftar till att skapa en djupare förståelse för faktorer som bidrar med tillit i ledarskaps sammanhang. I synnerhet berör frågeställningarna vilka faktorer som påverkar tillit i ledarskapet och i organisationer. Främst används beteendeperspektiv som förklaringsmodell. Som underlag för vidare antaganden tolkas empiri från intervjuer. Studien påvisar flera samband mellan redovisade teorier och empiri. Men det finns också flera diskrepanser. Resultatet anger att ett antal faktorer främjar tillit mellan chef och medarbetare. Dialog och återkoppling framträder exempelvis som två viktiga faktorer. Omvänt påverkar s.k. låt-gå ledarskap eller icke-ledarskap medarbetarna och effekten destruktivt. Det framhålls också betydelsen av att organisationen signalerar en tillåtande kultur, att det är tillåtet att göra misstag. Samt att den enskilda chefen har förmåga att skydda medarbetaren från negativ respons. Vidare konstateras också att de vedertagna normativa och rationellt välregisserade teorierna ofta skiljer sig från de tillfrågades mer turbulenta realitet. I intervjuerna framkommer ett samstämmigt behov av att chefer skall tillföra struktur och spelregler. Den kontext som presenteras i studien antas begränsa chefers handlingsförmåga att praktisera de välbeforskade kvantitativa teorierna. Studien påvisar också att konsekvensbedömningar av förväntad respons påverkar medarbetares initiativ. Det är i överenstämmelse med teorin, men där är perspektivet ofta inriktat på relationen chef och medarbetare. Studien indikerar istället att det framförallt är konsekvensbedömningar gentemot kollegor som styr medarbetarnas beteende. Sammantaget påvisar studien att tillit ären viktig faktor i det goda ledarskapet, om än inte den allena saliggörande. Snarare än att vara en enskild agens är tillit en del av en syntes. Utifrån studiens utfall rekommenderas att ytterligare underlag samlas in kring chefers verklighet, för att närmare förstå hur de vedertagnateorierna kan användas praktiskt. Vidare förordas ytterligare undersökningar gällande kollegors inverkan på tillit och beteende. / The phenomenon “leadership” has interested researchers from a variety of disciplines for a long time. The main focus has been on finding a normative and universal formula based on rational approaches. Despite a large number of scientific studies, mainly based on quantitative data, questions about the impact of interpersonal relations remain. In the search for the good and constructive leadership, research has recently become increasingly interested in the phenomenon “trust”. This study aims to create a deeper understanding of factors that contribute to trust in a leadership context. In particular issues concerning which factors that affect trust in organizations and in leadership. Behavioral perspectives are mainly used as the explanatory model. As a basis for further assumptions empirical data from interviews are interpreted. The study demonstrates several connections between theories and empirical data. But there are also several discrepancies. The results indicate that a number of factors promote trust between manager and employees, e.g. dialogue and feedback appear to be important. Conversely, “laissez-faire” or “non-leadership” impact employees and organizational effect in a destructive way. The importance of the organization signaling a tolerant culture is also emphasized, that it is permissible to make mistakes. It’s also vital that managers have the ability to protect the employee from negative feedback. Furthermore, it is also stated that the most common normative and rational theories often differ from the more turbulent reality of the respondents. The results also show that there is a need from managers to add structure and rules within the organizations. The context presented in the study is assumed to affect managers' ability to practice the well-researched quantitative theories. The study also shows that consequence assessments of expected response affects initiatives. This is in line with theory, but the perspective is usually focused on the relationship between manager and employee. Instead, the study indicates that it is primarily impact assessments between colleagues that govern employees' behavior. In summary, the study shows that trust is an important factor in constructive leadership, although not the only prevailing one. Rather than being a single agent, trust is a part of a synthesis. Based on the results of the study, it is recommended that further data is collected regarding managers' reality, in order to better understand how the well researched quantitative theories can be used in practice. Furthermore, more studies of how colleagues impact trust and behavior are advocated, in order to verify the interpretations.

The aim of this thesis is to study trust in military leaders. Empirical data was gathered through interviews and questionnaires with military personnel mostly from Sweden, but also from four other European countries. Paper I illustrates that trust in military leaders can be theoretically understood in terms of a hierarchical system of categories, higher-level categories and two superior categories labelled Individual-related and Communication- and relationship-related characteristics. Paper II examines how trust between military leaders and their subordinates is related to negative critical incidents in international operations. The results show that trust can be affected by pre-existing influences, of both an individual and contextual nature. The level of trust that develops between leaders and subordinates appears to have an influence on perceptions and re-evaluations of leaders’ trustworthiness during and after involvement in critical incidents. In Paper III, an instrument, Destrudo-L, was developed to measure destructive leadership behaviours on five different dimensions: Arrogant, unfair, Threats, punishments, overdemands, Ego-oriented, false, Passive, cowardly, and Uncertain, unclear, messy. In Paper IV the relationship between constructive and destructive leadership behaviours and trust is examined. The results show that constructive leadership contributed most to trust in the immediate supervisor. A great deal of trust in immediate supervisors can be understood by evaluating both constructive and destructive leadership behaviours. This thesis contributes with context-specific knowledge on trust in leaders in a military context and knowledge of psychological processes and individual dispositions that shape and change the willingness to trust leaders. The main findings presented in this thesis are the identification of characteristics of the trustor, the trustee, and the context which influences trust in military leaders. / Armed forces often perform tasks in life or death situations, bringing the issue of trust in military leaders to a head. Dependence on and trust in military leaders entails considerable risk, as any mistakes made by the leader may result in serious injury or death. Obeying orders is an essential aspect of the military profession and trust is critical since individuals are expected to give up their right to self-determination and follow orders (i.e. trust the leader). Refusal not only puts the individual soldier at risk, but also his or her team members and leaders. The hierarchical military system puts subordinates in a vulnerable position in relation to the leader. The aim of this thesis is to study trust in military leaders. Empirical data was gathered through interviews and questionnaires with military personnel mostly from Sweden, but also from four other European countries. This thesis contributes with context-specific knowledge on trust in leaders in a military context and knowledge on psychological processes and individual dispositions that shape and change the willingness to trust leaders. The main findings presented in this thesis are the identification of characteristics of the trustor, the trustee, and the context which influences trust in military leaders. / <p>Avhandlingen skrevs i samarbete med Försvarshögskolan i Stockholm i ämnet Ledarskap under påfrestande förhållanden</p>

La documentation scientifique s’intéresse généralement aux formes de leadership destructif et constructif et à leurs conséquences de façon isolée. Ainsi, peu d’attention a été portée au positionnement des comportements destructifs par rapport aux comportements constructifs. Or, l’étude de leur amalgame s’avère importante dans le contexte où un gestionnaire étant perçu à la fois comme une source de stress et de soutien pourrait être plus délétère pour ses employés qu’un gestionnaire étant plus clairement perçu comme une source de stress. Ce phénomène nommé exacerbation intra-source soutient qu’un un profil de leadership caractérisé par l’utilisation conjointe de comportements destructifs et constructifs serait plus délétère pour le bien-être et la performance des employés, qu’un profil plus clairement destructif. Ce phénomène serait théoriquement expliqué par la perception d’incertitude des comportements du gestionnaire. Cette thèse propose à travers deux articles d’examiner les amalgames de comportements de leadership destructif et constructif présentés par les gestionnaires et leurs liens avec l’épanouissement au travail et l’habilitation comportementale des employés, des indicateurs de bien-être et de performance. Elle propose aussi de vérifier si ces amalgames sont liés à la perception d’incertitude des comportements du gestionnaire. Le premier article vérifie les combinaisons de leadership tyrannique et transformationnel perçues par 2104 employés d’une organisation policière. Les résultats montrent que les gestionnaires de cette organisation amalgament ces comportements et qu’un profil caractérisé par des niveaux légèrement sous la moyenne à la fois de de leadership tyrannique et de leadership transformationnel serait plus néfaste pour l’épanouissement et iv l’habilitation comportementale des employés, qu’un profil de leadership plus clairement destructif ou un profil plus constructif. Le second article élargit le champ de recherche en s’intéressant à un ensemble plus large de comportements représentatifs du spectre du leadership destructif-constructif. Les combinaisons de leadership et leur lien avec l’épanouissement, l’habilitation comportementale et l’incertitude des comportements du gestionnaire sont investigués par l’entremise des perceptions de 305 employés d’une organisation du secteur des ressources naturelles. Les résultats obtenus dans cette organisation soutiennent également que les gestionnaires amalgament des comportements destructifs et constructifs. Certains gestionnaires présentent un profil généralement constructif, mais caractérisé par plus de comportements destructifs, comparativement à d’autres ayant un profil plus clairement constructif. Un dernier profil de gestionnaires plus destructifs est observé et serait lié aux niveaux les plus faibles d’épanouissement et d’habilitation comportementale, ainsi que le plus élevé d’incertitude, ne soutenant pas la présence d’exacerbation intra-source. L’exacerbation intra-source est toutefois observée en présence de dyades spécifiques de comportements de leadership. Cette thèse contribue à améliorer notre compréhension des combinaisons comportementales de leadership typiquement présentées par les gestionnaires. Elle contribue aussi à l’identification des conditions précises dans lesquelles l’exacerbation intra-source est élicitée dans le contexte du leadership. Ce phénomène serait uniquement observé sur l’épanouissement et l’habilitation comportementale en présence de dyades spécifiques de comportements destructifs et constructifs reposant sur le même mécanisme d’influence. Dans cette optique, seule une de ces dyades serait liée à la perception d’incertitude, ouvrant ainsi à la possibilité à l’existence de plus d’un mécanisme explicatif de l’exacerbation intra-source. / The scientific literature generally focuses on forms of destructive and constructive leadership and their consequences in isolation. Little attention has been paid to the positioning of destructive behaviors in relation to constructive behaviors. However, the examination of their combinations is an important matter considering that a leader who is perceived as a source of stress and support could be more deleterious for his employees than a leader who is more clearly perceived as a source of stress. This phenomenon, called within-domain exacerbation, suggests that a leadership profile characterized by both destructive and constructive behaviors would be more deleterious for employees’ well-being and performance than one more clearly characterized by destructive behaviors. This phenomenon is theoretically explained by perception of the leader’s behaviors uncertainty. This thesis proposes through two articles to examine how leaders combine destructive and constructive behaviors and how these combinations are related with thriving at work and behavioral empowerment, respectively indicators of well-being and performance. It also proposes to verify if these combinations are related to perceptions of the leader’s behaviors uncertainty. The first article examines combinations of petty tyranny and transformational leadership perceived by 2104 employees of a police organization. Results show that leaders of this organization do combine these behaviors and that a profile characterized by slightly below average levels of petty tyranny and transformational leadership appears to be more deleterious for employees thriving and behavioral empowerment, compared to a more clearly destructive profile and a more constructive profile. The second article considers a broader set of behaviors representative of the destructive-constructive leadership spectrum. Combinations of leadership behaviors and their vii relations with thriving, behavioral empowerment, and the leader’s behaviors uncertainty were investigated through the perception of 305 employees of an organization working in the natural resource industry. Results also show leaders of this organization do combine destructive and constructive behaviors. Some leaders present a generally constructive profile, but characterized by higher levels of destructive behaviors, compared to others who present a more clearly constructive profile. A destructive leadership profile was also observed and is related to the lowest levels of thriving and behaviors empowerment, and the highest level of uncertainty, not supporting the presence of within-domain exacerbation. However, within-domain exacerbation is observed in the presence of specific dyadic combination of leadership behaviors. This thesis contributes to improve our understanding of the leadership profiles typically presented by leaders. It also contributes to the identification of the precise conditions under which within-domain exacerbation is elicited when leadership behaviors are considered. This phenomenon is only observed on thriving at work and behavioral empowerment when leaders present a specific dyadic combination of destructive and constructive behaviors which rely on the same influence mechanism. Moreover, only one of these specific combinations is related to perception of uncertainty, suggesting more than one mechanism could underpin within-domain exacerbation.