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融合教育（Inclusive Education）是20世紀90年代興起的國際教育思潮。隨著各國對於教育平等的追求，融合教育的理念得到了世界各國的認可。許多國家亦積極將融合教育的思想付諸實踐。隨著融合教育在世界範圍內的發展，越來越多身心障礙的學生走進普通學校，與同儕一起接受普通教育，包括體育教育。在此發展情境之下，瞭解普通學校中體育老師對融合體育教育的看法以及他們如何應對融入身心障礙學生的體育課堂，對於促進融合體育教育在一般體育課堂當中的發展就變得非常重要。本論文的研究目的分為：（一）探討體育教師對融合體育的認知以及影響這些認知形成的因素；（二）探討體育教師對以情境教學方法促進身心障礙學生參與一般體育課堂活動的信念和實際教學行為。 / 以社會文化建構理論（Vygotsky, 1978, 1986）為理論基礎，研究一（第三章）旨在探討香港中學體育教師對融合體育教育的認知。通過質性半結構訪談方法（Patton, 2002）對八位香港中學體育教師（男=3，女=5）進行訪談；訪談資料被錄音，記錄，檢驗，並通過內容分析方法（Patton, 2002）進行分析和描述性闡述。研究結果為：（一）老師們一致認為融合體育教育的實施為身心障礙學生提供了與同儕平等的機會來接受一般體育教育；並強調此舉將特別有助於發展其社會交往能力。然而，老師們亦強調將身心障礙學生融入一般體育課堂的過程遇到諸多困難。這些困難來自教師自身在實施融合體育課程中缺乏能力與有效方法，課堂其他同輩消極的態度與欺淩，缺乏家長支持，以及缺乏特殊體育器材的支持等；（二）老師們表達了對處理融合體育教育實踐專業知識與培訓的渴求，希望能夠以更專業更有效的方法令到身心障礙學生獲得有意義的一般學校體育教育。研究結果表明為促進融合體育教育順利實施，相關責任人（如教師和其同事，身心障礙學生家長，管理者）之間需要更加頻繁、更加有效率的溝通，參與和協作。研究結果亦突顯了促進教師自我規制以提高其教授身心障礙學生的能力和自信心的三個因素，包括：考量大學體育教育中有關教授身心障礙學生的內容，增加教師關於融合教育在職培訓中有關體育教育的內容，和促進或增加與教學助理的協作。 / 紮根於情境學習理論當中的實踐社群概念（Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998），研究二認為，“將身心障礙學生融入一般體育課堂“，不單只是強調令身心障礙學生學習並獲得運動技巧，更強調這是一個令到身心障礙學生參與並投入一般體育課堂活動機會增加的過程。情境學習理論連同計畫行為理論中信念框架作為理論基礎，研究二探討了教師對促進身心障礙學生參與一般體育課堂活動的信念和教學行為。研究二採納質化個案研究策略（Patton, 2002; Yin, 2009），使用訪談，觀察，實物分析等多種研究手段針對四位中學體育教師（男=3，女=1）對“促進身心障礙學生參與一般體育課堂活動的信念和實際教學行為，進行描述，探討、描述、分析和檢驗。研究結果表明：（一）教師對於促進身心障礙學生參與一般體育課堂活動持積極態度。教師亦視自身為促進者角色，來為身心障礙學生在一般體育課堂當中的學習提供幫助。教師認為給予積極回饋，稱呼名字，肢體接觸，更多的演示，將動作分解，都有利於身心障礙學生更多參與活動；教師亦強調班容量過大，自身缺乏信心，專業知識與能力都成為促進身心障礙學生參與活動的阻礙因素；（二）教師和身心障礙學生之間缺乏互動；在教學過程中很少強調身心障礙學生與其他同儕交流合作的重要性。教師在教學中未嘗試教學方法令到身心障礙學生想像和真實地參與其他體育社群活動。研究結果突顯了體育教師本身對於促進身心障礙學生參與體育課堂活動的信念和其具體的教學行為，對身心障礙學生在一般體育課堂中學習與經歷所產生的的重要的影響作用。研究建議教師應基於學習理論角度，從建構情境學習模式（參與，想像，一致）出發來考慮和設計教學，以促進身心障礙學生積極參與一般體育課堂活動。 / 綜上所述，通過檢視體育教師對融合體育教學的認知，融合體育教學信念和實際教學行為，本研究揭示了融合體育教與學的複雜性。研究認為：身心障礙學生在一般體育課堂的學習與經歷是一個社會性的，實踐性的，和與同輩互動的參與過程。此過程通過身心障礙學生，一般學生和體育教師及其他參與此過程的人員的身份的認同而得到不斷的創建。研究建議：體育教師和教育機構應重新審視“將身心障礙生融入一般體育課堂這個主題概念。通過重新認知融合體育課堂社會構建的本質，即在實踐社群中創建和認同不同參與者的身份，以此來進行融合體育教學的設計與實踐，從而達到融合體育教育的理想效果。 / In the pursuit of educational equality, many countries have applied the philosophy and practice of inclusive education since the1990s. As a result, there are more students with disabilities in general education classrooms, including general physical education (PE) classes. Therefore, the purposes of this study are (1) to examine the perceptions of teachers on inclusive PE and identity the factors influenced their perceptions, and (2) to examine teachers’ beliefs and practices on the use of constructivist teaching methods on students with disabilities in general PE. / Adopting the social constructivism theory (Vygotsky, 1978, 1986), the first study in Chapter Three examined the perceptions of PE teachers concerning the inclusion of students with disabilities in general PE programs in Hong Kong secondary schools. Eight secondary PE teachers (F = 5, M = 3) were recruited for individual semi-structured interviews. Data gathered from the interviews were tape-recorded and transcribed. Interview transcripts underwent content analysis and were presented as descriptive summaries. Two themes emerged: (1) favorable, but encountering barriers, and (2) enhancing one’s professional knowledge and collective experience. Results indicated that the teachers acknowledged the benefits of inclusive PE, but they also expressed concern about the instructional and environment barriers to the inclusion of students with disabilities in general PE programs. The findings clearly demonstrate the need for more frequent and efficient communication, involvement, and collaboration among stakeholders involved (e.g., teachers and their peers, parents of students with disabilities, administrators) in inclusive PE. The findings also illustrate the important influences of initial training of Physical Education-Teacher Education program relevant to teaching students with disabilities, inclusive education in-service training specific to PE, and collaborations with teaching assistants in promoting the self-regulation of teachers and improving their competencies and confidence in teaching inclusive PE. / Ground in the notion of “community of practice“ of situated learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998), the second study understands the inclusion of students with disabilities in general PE as a process which not only focus on skill acquisition, but also pay more attention to increase participation of students with disabilities in the classroom activities of the general PE classroom communities. Based on the situated learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998) in conjunction with the components of the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985, 1991), the second study in Chapter Four examined the beliefs and practices of four secondary PE teachers (F = 1, M = 3) regarding promoting the participation of students with disabilities in general PE using a qualitative case study approach (Pattoon, 2002; Yin, 200p). The results revealed the following: (1) The teachers varied in their beliefs about the degree of difficulty in promoting the participation and engagement of students with disabilities in the PE lessons, although they had positive attitudes towards constructivist teaching inclusive PE. According to the teachers, this facilitation involved giving positive feedback, calling the first names of students with disabilities, physical interaction, additional demonstrations, and breaking down skills into various parts. The teachers also specified negative factors, such as large class size, lack of personnel resources, and lack of professional knowledge. (2) Teachers and students with disabilities were less engaged with each other mutually. Moreover, the teachers offered very few opportunities for mutual engagement of students with disabilities in general PE. Thus, social interactions of students with disabilities in general PE were not well established. Teachers in this study did not exert effort to make students with disabilities to imagine taking part in other PE communities in a broader context. In addition, teachers did not push the boundaries of the inclusive PE communities, and make students with disabilities really interact in other PE communities. The study highlights the importance of the situated learning theory on teachers’ beliefs and practices on teaching students with disabilities. Teachers are expected to consider teaching practices to increase the participation of students with disabilities from the modes of learning architecture of the situated learning (i.e., engagement, imagination, and alignment). / In conclusion, by demonstrating the complex process of inclusive PE, this study argues that the experiences of students with disabilities in general PE need to be seen as a socially constructed and negotiated process through which the identities of PE students--with or without disabilities--and teachers are constantly created. The study exhorts teachers and educational institutions to rethink current notions concerning the inclusion of students with disabilities in general PE, and to work toward inclusive practices by recognizing the socially constructed nature of inclusive PE classroom interaction and participation and critically examining the roles and identities constructed by different participants in the inclusive PE classroom community. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Qi, Jing. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2012. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 202-222). / Abstract also in Chinese. / ABSTRACT --- p.ii / ACKNOLEDGEMENTS --- p.vi / TABLE OF CONTENTS --- p.viii / LIST OF TABLES --- p.xi / LIST OF FIGURES --- p.xii / Chapter Chapter 1 --- INTRODUTION --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- Background --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- Research Questions --- p.9 / Chapter 1.3 --- Operational Definitions --- p.10 / Chapter 1.3.1 --- Inclusion --- p.10 / Chapter 1.3.2 --- Physical Education --- p.10 / Chapter 1.3.3 --- General Physical Education --- p.11 / Chapter 1.3.4 --- Inclusive Physical Education --- p.11 / Chapter 1.3.5 --- Students with Disabilities --- p.11 / Chapter 1.3.6 --- Perceptions --- p.11 / Chapter 1.3.7 --- Beliefs --- p.12 / Chapter 1.3.8 --- Practices --- p.12 / Chapter 1.4 --- Limitations --- p.12 / Chapter 1.5 --- Delimitations --- p.13 / Chapter 1.6 --- Significance of the Study --- p.14 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE --- p.15 / Chapter 2.1 --- Inclusion --- p.15 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- Disability Inclusion and Global Development --- p.15 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Hong Kong Context --- p.18 / Chapter 2.1.2.1 --- Inclusive Education Development. --- p.18 / Chapter 2.1.2.2 --- The Whole-School Approach to Inclusive Education --- p.20 / Chapter 2.1.2.3 --- Physical Education in Hong Kong --- p.22 / Chapter 2.1.3 --- Research on Inclusive Education --- p.23 / Chapter 2.1.4 --- Inclusion in Physical Education --- p.29 / Chapter 2.1.4.1 --- Stakeholders Perspectives --- p.32 / Chapter 2.1.4.2 --- Impacts on Students without Disabilities --- p.38 / Chapter 2.1.4.3 --- Experiences of Students with Disabilities --- p.38 / Chapter 2.1.4.4 --- Effective Inclusion in Physical Education --- p.43 / Chapter 2.1.5 --- Summary --- p.51 / Chapter 2.2 --- Teacher Perceptions of Inclusive Physical Education --- p.52 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Teacher Attitudes and Views of Inclusion Research: Theoretical Perspectives and Debates --- p.52 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Teacher Perceptions Construction: A Social Constructivist Perspective --- p.57 / Chapter 2.2.2.1 --- Overview of Learning and Cognition Theories --- p.57 / Chapter 2.2.2.2 --- Overview of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory --- p.61 / Chapter 2.2.2.3 --- Teacher Perceptions of Inclusive Physical Education: A Social Constructivist Perspective --- p.64 / Chapter 2.3 --- Teacher Practices in Inclusive Physical Education --- p.65 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Teacher Implementations of Inclusion Research: Theoretical Perspectives and Debate --- p.65 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Learning and Teaching in Inclusive Physical Education: A Situated Learning Perspective --- p.68 / Chapter 2.3.2.1 --- Overview of situated learning theory --- p.68 / Chapter 2.3.2.2 --- Situated Learning Theory in Physical Education --- p.73 / Chapter 2.3.2.3 --- Inclusion Practice in Inclusive Physical Education: A Situated Learning Perspective --- p.76 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- PERCEPTIONS OF PHYSICAL EDUCAITON TEACHERS ON THE INCLUSION OF STUDETNS WITH DISABILITIES --- p.89 / Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.89 / Chapter 3.2 --- Theoretical Framework --- p.90 / Chapter 3.2.1 --- The Definition of the Perception --- p.90 / Chapter 3.2.2 --- Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism --- p.91 / Chapter 3.2.3 --- Applications of Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism in this Study --- p.93 / Chapter 3.3 --- Methods --- p.94 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Participants --- p.94 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Data Collection --- p.96 / Chapter 3.3.3 --- Data Analysis --- p.97 / Chapter 3.3.4 --- Trustworthiness --- p.100 / Chapter 3.4 --- Results --- p.104 / Chapter 3.4.1 --- Favorable, but Encountering Barriers --- p.104 / Chapter 3.4.2 --- Enhancing one’s Professional Knowledge and Collective Experience --- p.110 / Chapter 3.5 --- Discussion --- p.112 / Chapter 3.5.1 --- Communication, Involvement, and Collaboration --- p.112 / Chapter 3.5.2 --- Promoting Teacher’s Self-regulation --- p.115 / Chapter 3.5.3 --- Perceived Relevance --- p.119 / Chapter 3.6 --- Conclusions and Limitations --- p.119 / Chapter Chapter 4 --- USING SITUATED LEARNING THEORY TO FACILITATE THE INCLUSION OF STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES IN GENERAL PHYSICAL EDUCATION --- p.122 / Chapter 4.1 --- Introduction --- p.122 / Chapter 4.2 --- Theoretical Underpinnings --- p.125 / Chapter 4.2.1 --- Situated Learning: A Constructivist Approach to Inclusive PE --- p.125 / Chapter 4.2.2 --- Beliefs of Teachers --- p.129 / Chapter 4.3 --- Methods --- p.133 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- Research Design --- p.133 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- Settings and Participants --- p.134 / Chapter 4.3.3 --- Data Collection --- p.135 / Chapter 4.3.4 --- Data Analysis --- p.145 / Chapter 4.3.5 --- Trustworthiness --- p.149 / Chapter 4.4 --- RESULTS --- p.150 / Chapter 4.4.1 --- Case 1: Lisa --- p.150 / Chapter 4.4.2 --- Case 2: John --- p.159 / Chapter 4.4.3 --- Case 3: Tom --- p.166 / Chapter 4.4.2 --- Case 4: Peter --- p.171 / Chapter 4.5 --- Discussion --- p.179 / Chapter 4.5.1 --- Teacher Beliefs of Constructivist Teaching Students with Disabilities --- p.179 / Chapter 4.5.2 --- Link to Situated Learning: Teacher Practices of Teaching Students with Disabilities --- p.184 / Chapter 4.5.2.1 --- Mutual Engagement --- p.185 / Chapter 4.5.2.2 --- Imagination --- p.188 / Chapter 4.5.2.3 --- Alignment --- p.189 / Chapter 4.6 --- Conclusions and Limitations --- p.189 / Chapter Chapter 5 --- SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS --- p.192 / Chapter 5.1 --- Summary --- p.192 / Chapter 5.2 --- Conclusions --- p.193 / Chapter 5.3 --- Implications --- p.195 / Chapter 5.3.1 --- Implications for Future Practice --- p.195 / Chapter 5.3.2 --- Directions for Future Research --- p.199 / REFERENCES --- p.202 / Chapter Appendix A --- DESCRIPTIONS OF DISABILITIES --- p.223 / Chapter Appendix B --- INFORMED CONSENT LETTER FOR TEACHERS --- p.224 / Chapter Appendix C --- INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR FORMAL INTERVIEWS WITH TEACHERS ON THEIR PERCEPTIONS OF INCLUSION IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION --- p.225 / Chapter Appendix D --- INFORMED CONSENT LETTER FOR TEACHERS --- p.226 / Chapter Appendix E --- INTERVIEW GIIDE AND SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR FORMAL INTERVIEWS WITH THE TEACHERS --- p.228 / Chapter Appendix F --- AIPE-T Record Table --- p.229 / Chapter Appendix G --- AIPE-S Record Table --- p.230 / Chapter Appendix H --- SOFIT Record Table --- p.231 / Chapter Appendix I --- INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS WITH STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES --- p.235 / Chapter Appendix J --- INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR GROUP INTERVIEWS WITH STUDENTS WITHOUT DISABILITIES --- p.235

published_or_final_version / Education / Master / Master of Science in Information Technology in Education

published_or_final_version / Education / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

Este trabalho apresenta uma análise da consistência e utilidade do material didático integrante do Programa Ler e Escrever para a alfabetização de crianças do primeiro ciclo do ensino fundamental, adotado pelo estado de São Paulo. A análise é feita sob as seguintes perspectivas: consistência do referencial teórico adotado, existência ou não de evidências da eficácia da didática proposta pela obtenção de resultados favoráveis por diferentes pesquisadores em outros contextos de aplicação, e consenso da comunidade científica sobre a interpretação destes resultados. O trabalho apresenta também os resultados de avaliações e intervenções realizadas com 44 crianças de 7 a 13 anos defasadas na leitura e na escrita, estudantes de escolas públicas de dois municípios da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo que aderiram à alfabetização construtivista. Estes resultados também foram usados como referencial para a análise. Os aspectos analisados foram o referencial teórico adotado (o modelo de psicogênese da língua escrita de Ferreiro e Teberosky), o procedimento proposto para avaliação do progresso das crianças (a sondagem) e uma instrução para a leitura de histórias (não pare a leitura para explicar as palavras difíceis). Os resultados da análise da proposta didática estudada mostram que outras interpretações são possíveis para os experimentos que deram origem ao modelo adotado. Mostram também que não há consenso sobre este modelo como explicativo necessário e suficiente para os problemas relativos à alfabetização, e que parece não haver na literatura acadêmica evidências empíricas que recomendem a didática proposta. Os resultados das avaliações e intervenções realizadas com as crianças apontam para a existência de dificuldades comuns na alfabetização no português do Brasil registradas na bibliografia acadêmica sobre o tema, dificuldades que a proposta didática analisada não leva em consideração. Mostram ainda que as crianças estudadas apresentam sequelas de um processo inadequado de alfabetização, compatíveis com uma proposta de alfabetização construtivista semelhante à proposta analisada. Uma destas sequelas é a troca do esforço de decodificação das palavras pela tentativa de adivinhação. Crianças que não são auxiliadas a superar suas dificuldades podem desenvolver soluções equivocadas para os problemas de leitura que não conseguem resolver, tornando estas dificuldades muito maiores do que seriam se tivessem sido esclarecidas logo que surgiram. Por exemplo, um problema para o qual a literatura científica e tampouco os documentos analisados dão a devida atenção é o fato de que algumas crianças, quando leem uma palavra e não conseguem atribuir sentido, acreditam que não leram, podendo chegar ao ponto de pensarem que não sabem ler. Este problema pode ser considerado como relativo a um dos aspectos da consciência lexical da criança, ou seja, a falta de consciência de que o idioma tem muitas palavras que são desconhecidas para ela e sugere a necessidade de cuidados na aplicação de alguns testes de avaliação cognitiva, especialmente os de leitura de pseudopalavras. Outro problema que os documentos analisados não levam em consideração é uma característica do português brasileiro que constitui um grande obstáculo à atribuição de sentido às palavras pelas crianças, constituído pela multiplicidade de sons representados por cada vogal. / Presented here is an analysis of the consistency and usefulness of the teaching materials used in the Programa Ler e Escrever (Reading and Writing Program), adopted by the city of São Paulo and aimed at reading instruction at the first four years of elementary school. The approach was analyzed from the following perspectives: consistency of the theoretical framework adopted, the presence or absence of evidence of the effectiveness of the educational approach based on favorable results obtained by different researchers in other contexts, and consensus by the scientific community regarding the interpretation of these results. This paper also presents the results of evaluations and interventions carried out with 44 public school children, aged 7 to 13, who are deficient in reading and writing skills. These results were also used as the basis for the analysis. Aspects included in the analysis were the theoretical framework adopted (the psychogenesis model of written language by Ferreiro and Teberosky), the procedure proposed for evaluating the progress of the children and an instruction for the reading of stories (do not stop reading to explain difficult words). The results of the analysis of the educational approach show that there are other possible interpretations for the experiments that originated the model. The results also show that there is no consensus that this model provides a necessary and sufficient explanation for the problems surrounding reading instruction, and there appears to be no empirical evidence in the academic literature recommending the proposed educational approach. The results of the evaluations and intervention carried out with the children point to the existence of reading problems common to Brazilian Portuguese learners, as presented in the academic bibliography on the theme, difficulties that the educational approach analyzed does not take into account. The results also show that the children studied present undesirable aftereffects from an inappropriate reading instruction process, compatible with constructivist methods similar to the one analyzed. One of these aftereffects is guessing at words instead of working to decode them. Children who do not receive help to overcome their difficulties may develop inappropriate reading strategies that they are unable to resolve, leading to greater difficulties than if they had been dealt with promptly. For example, a problem for which neither the scientific literature nor the documents analyzed pay enough attention is the fact that some children, when they read a word and are unable to assign meaning, believe they cannot read it, which can eventually lead them to believe that they are unable to read at all. This problem is related to an aspect of lexical awareness in children, or in other words, the lack of awareness that a language contains many words that are unknown to them. As such, care is recommended in the administration of certain cognitive evaluation tests, especially those for the reading of pseudowords. Another problem that the documents analyzed do not take into account is the difficulty encountered by children in assigning meaning to Brazilian Portuguese words, due to the multiplicity of sounds represented by each vowel.

"The objectives of this research were (1) to develop experimental active-based-learning curricula for undergraduate courses in transportation engineering and (2) to assess the effectiveness of an active-learning-based traffic engineering curriculum through an educational experiment. The researcher developed a new highway design course as a pilot study to test selected active-learning techniques before employing them in the traffic engineering curriculum. Active-learning techniques, including multiple-choice questions, short problems completed by individual students or small groups, and group discussions, were used as active interludes within lectures. The researcher also collected and analyzed student performance and attitude data from control and experimental classes to evaluate the relative effectiveness of the traditional lecture (control) approach and the active-learning (experimental) approach. The results indicate that the active-learning approach adopted for the experimental class did have a positive impact on student performance as measured by exam scores. The students in the experimental class also indicated slightly more positive attitudes at the end of the course than the control class, although the difference was not significant. The author recommends that active interludes similar to those in the experimental curricula be used in other courses in civil engineering."

Este trabalho apresenta uma análise da consistência e utilidade do material didático integrante do Programa Ler e Escrever para a alfabetização de crianças do primeiro ciclo do ensino fundamental, adotado pelo estado de São Paulo. A análise é feita sob as seguintes perspectivas: consistência do referencial teórico adotado, existência ou não de evidências da eficácia da didática proposta pela obtenção de resultados favoráveis por diferentes pesquisadores em outros contextos de aplicação, e consenso da comunidade científica sobre a interpretação destes resultados. O trabalho apresenta também os resultados de avaliações e intervenções realizadas com 44 crianças de 7 a 13 anos defasadas na leitura e na escrita, estudantes de escolas públicas de dois municípios da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo que aderiram à alfabetização construtivista. Estes resultados também foram usados como referencial para a análise. Os aspectos analisados foram o referencial teórico adotado (o modelo de psicogênese da língua escrita de Ferreiro e Teberosky), o procedimento proposto para avaliação do progresso das crianças (a sondagem) e uma instrução para a leitura de histórias (não pare a leitura para explicar as palavras difíceis). Os resultados da análise da proposta didática estudada mostram que outras interpretações são possíveis para os experimentos que deram origem ao modelo adotado. Mostram também que não há consenso sobre este modelo como explicativo necessário e suficiente para os problemas relativos à alfabetização, e que parece não haver na literatura acadêmica evidências empíricas que recomendem a didática proposta. Os resultados das avaliações e intervenções realizadas com as crianças apontam para a existência de dificuldades comuns na alfabetização no português do Brasil registradas na bibliografia acadêmica sobre o tema, dificuldades que a proposta didática analisada não leva em consideração. Mostram ainda que as crianças estudadas apresentam sequelas de um processo inadequado de alfabetização, compatíveis com uma proposta de alfabetização construtivista semelhante à proposta analisada. Uma destas sequelas é a troca do esforço de decodificação das palavras pela tentativa de adivinhação. Crianças que não são auxiliadas a superar suas dificuldades podem desenvolver soluções equivocadas para os problemas de leitura que não conseguem resolver, tornando estas dificuldades muito maiores do que seriam se tivessem sido esclarecidas logo que surgiram. Por exemplo, um problema para o qual a literatura científica e tampouco os documentos analisados dão a devida atenção é o fato de que algumas crianças, quando leem uma palavra e não conseguem atribuir sentido, acreditam que não leram, podendo chegar ao ponto de pensarem que não sabem ler. Este problema pode ser considerado como relativo a um dos aspectos da consciência lexical da criança, ou seja, a falta de consciência de que o idioma tem muitas palavras que são desconhecidas para ela e sugere a necessidade de cuidados na aplicação de alguns testes de avaliação cognitiva, especialmente os de leitura de pseudopalavras. Outro problema que os documentos analisados não levam em consideração é uma característica do português brasileiro que constitui um grande obstáculo à atribuição de sentido às palavras pelas crianças, constituído pela multiplicidade de sons representados por cada vogal. / Presented here is an analysis of the consistency and usefulness of the teaching materials used in the Programa Ler e Escrever (Reading and Writing Program), adopted by the city of São Paulo and aimed at reading instruction at the first four years of elementary school. The approach was analyzed from the following perspectives: consistency of the theoretical framework adopted, the presence or absence of evidence of the effectiveness of the educational approach based on favorable results obtained by different researchers in other contexts, and consensus by the scientific community regarding the interpretation of these results. This paper also presents the results of evaluations and interventions carried out with 44 public school children, aged 7 to 13, who are deficient in reading and writing skills. These results were also used as the basis for the analysis. Aspects included in the analysis were the theoretical framework adopted (the psychogenesis model of written language by Ferreiro and Teberosky), the procedure proposed for evaluating the progress of the children and an instruction for the reading of stories (do not stop reading to explain difficult words). The results of the analysis of the educational approach show that there are other possible interpretations for the experiments that originated the model. The results also show that there is no consensus that this model provides a necessary and sufficient explanation for the problems surrounding reading instruction, and there appears to be no empirical evidence in the academic literature recommending the proposed educational approach. The results of the evaluations and intervention carried out with the children point to the existence of reading problems common to Brazilian Portuguese learners, as presented in the academic bibliography on the theme, difficulties that the educational approach analyzed does not take into account. The results also show that the children studied present undesirable aftereffects from an inappropriate reading instruction process, compatible with constructivist methods similar to the one analyzed. One of these aftereffects is guessing at words instead of working to decode them. Children who do not receive help to overcome their difficulties may develop inappropriate reading strategies that they are unable to resolve, leading to greater difficulties than if they had been dealt with promptly. For example, a problem for which neither the scientific literature nor the documents analyzed pay enough attention is the fact that some children, when they read a word and are unable to assign meaning, believe they cannot read it, which can eventually lead them to believe that they are unable to read at all. This problem is related to an aspect of lexical awareness in children, or in other words, the lack of awareness that a language contains many words that are unknown to them. As such, care is recommended in the administration of certain cognitive evaluation tests, especially those for the reading of pseudowords. Another problem that the documents analyzed do not take into account is the difficulty encountered by children in assigning meaning to Brazilian Portuguese words, due to the multiplicity of sounds represented by each vowel.

There are three fundamentally different ideas about the nature of learning and the properties/nature of knowledge. These ideas include both a view of how learning occurs and also a view of what knowledge actually is. These three basic approaches are referred to as behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism. A basic understanding of the three theories is required to complete this tutorial. Refer to the references section in this tutorial for an overview of the differences between these theoretical approaches to learning and knowledge. In this interactive tutorial you will be presented with 25 characteristics of these three learning theories. Your goal will be to determine which of these characteristics refer to behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism.

published_or_final_version / abstract / toc / Education / Master / Master of Education

Pädag. Hochschule, Diss., 2005--Heidelberg.