In this thesis the position of parties under a fixed-term agreement under section 14 of the Consumer Protection Act 68 of 2008 is analysed critically. The purpose of this thesis is first to establish whether parties to a fixed-term agreement are better protected in terms of section 14 of the CPA when the consumer needs to terminate the contract based on the material failure to perform by the supplier, than under the common law. Second, this thesis explores whether the maximum duration of fixed-term agreements should be limited by statute. Various aspects affecting parties to these agreements, for instance the freedom to contract, pacta servanda sunt, and standard-form agreements, are considered. The South African position is then compared to the position in Singapore under the Consumer Protection (Fair Trading) Act, and to the United Kingdom under the Consumer Rights Act, to gain perspective and objectively evaluate the provisions of section 14 of the Consumer Protection Act 68 of 2008 to establish whether South Africa can benefit from lessons learnt from these jurisdictions. Finally, principle-based amendments to the provisions of the CPA are recommended to improve the position of the consumer under fixed-term agreements to effect best practice solutions and ensure adherence to the aims and purposes of the Consumer Protection Act 68 of 2008 and international guidelines. This thesis is based on the law as at 18 June 2020, found in sources available in South Africa, and Singaporean law available in the database of the National University of Singapore. / Hierdie proefskrif is ’n kritiese analise van die posisie van partye tot vastetermynkontrakte ingevolge artikel 14 van die Suid-Afrikaanse verbruikersbeskermingswetgewing, die Consumer Protection Act 68 van 2008 (CPA). Die doel van die analise is eerstens om vas te stel of partye tot ’n vastetermynkontrak ingevolge artikel 14 van die CPA beter beskerming geniet ingevolge die CPA wanneer die verbruiker die vastetermynkontrak moet beëindig weens die wesenlike wanprestasie deur die verskaffer, as ingevolge die gemenereg. Tweedens ondersoek die proefskrif of dit wenslik is dat die maksimum duur van vastetermynkontrakte deur wetgewing beperk word. Verskeie aspekte wat die posisie van partye tot vastetermynkontrakte beïnvloed word ondersoek, onder andere kontrakteervryheid, die leerstuk pacta servanda sunt en standaardkontrakte. Die Suid-Afrikaanse posisie word dan vergelyk met dié in Singapoer, ingevolge die Consumer Protection (Fair Trading) Act (CPFTA), en die Verenigde Koninkryk, ingevolge die Consumer Rights Act (CRA) om perspektief te kry op die studie, en ten einde die bepalings van artikel 14 objektief te oorweeg om vas te stel of Suid-Afrika kan kersopsteek by hierdie jurisdiksies. Laastens word voorstelle gemaak om die posisie van die verbruiker tot vastetermynkontrakte ingevolge die CPA te verbeter om beste gebruikspraktyke te implementeer, en te verseker dat die doelwitte van die CPA en internasionale verbruikersriglyne bereik word. Hierdie studie weerspieël die regsposisie soos op 18 Junie 2020 in bronne wat plaaslik beskikbaar is, asook in bronne aan my beskikbaar gestel deur die Nasionale Universiteit van Singapoer tydens ’n navorsingsbesoek daar. / Kule thesisi isimo sezinhlangano ezingaphansi kwesivumelwano sesikhathi esinqunyiwe, ngaphansi kwesigaba 14 koMthetho 68 ka 2008, uMthetho weZokuvikelwa koMthengi uhlaziywa ngendlela egxekayo. Inhloso yalolu cwaningo ukusungula ukuthi mhlawumbe lezi zinhlangano ezingaphansi kwesivumelwano sesikhathi esinqunyiwe sivikeleke kangcono ngaphansi kwesigaba 14 se-CPA uma kunesidingo sabathengi sokuqedwa kwesivumelwano esencike phezu kokwehluleka ukwenza umsebenzi waloyo ongumthumeli wempahla, okwehlukile emthethweni owejwayelekile. Okwesibili, le thesis iphenya ukuthi mhlawumbe isikhathi isikhathi esinde sesivumelwano sesikhathi esinqunyiwe kufanele sincishiswe ngokomthetho oshayiwe. Izinto ezahlukahlukene ezithinta lezi zivumelwano, njengesibonelo, inkululeko yokungena esivumelwaneni pacta servanda sunt, kanye nesivumelwano ezingaguquki, kuyizinto ezibhekwayo. Isimo seNingizimu Afrika siqhathaniswa nesimo sezwe laseSingapore ngaphansi koMthetho wezokuVikelwa kwabaThengi (Fair Trading), kanye nasezweni laseUnited Kingdom ngaphansi koMthetho owaMalungelo abaThengi, ukuthola umqondo kanye nokuhlola izimiso ngaphansi kwesigaba 14 soMthetho 68 ka 2008, uMthetho oVikela abaThengi ukuthola ukuthi ngabe iNingizimu Afrika kukhona ekuzuzile kwizifundo ezifundwe kulezi zakhiwo zemithetho. Okokugcina, izichibiyelo ezisuselwe kwimigomo mayelana nalokho okushiwo yi-CPA inconywe ukuthi yenze ngcono isimo sezinhlangano ezingaphansi kwezivumelwano zesikhathi esinqunyiwe ukuletha izisombululo ezingcono kanye nokuqinisekisa ukuthi kulandelwa izinhloso kanye nemisebenzi yoMthetho 68 ka 2008, okunguMthetho oVikela abaThengi kanye nemihlahlandlela yezizwe zomhlaba. Lolu cwaningo lususelwe phezu komthetho kusukela mhla zi 18 uNhlangulana 2020, luyatholakala emithonjeni yaseNingizimu Afrika, kanye nomthetho waseSingapore uyatholakala emthonjeni yedatha yaseNational University of Singapore. / Mercantile Law / LL. D.

In the context of the Internet, spam generally refers to unsolicited and unwanted electronic messages, usually transmitted to a large number of recipients. The problem with spam is that almost all of the related costs are shifted onto the recipients, and many of the messages contain objectionable content. Spam has become a significant problem for network administrators, businesses and individual Internet users that threatens to undermine the usefulness of e-mail. Globally, spam spiralled to account for over 60% of all e-mail near the end of 2004. It is a problem that costs the global economy billions of dollars a year in lost productivity, anti-spam measures and computer resources. It has forced governments to enact legislation against the problem and it has prompted the development of numerous technical countermeasures. Spam can only be defeated by a combination of legal measures, informal measures (including self regulation and social norms), technical measures and consumer education. Because spam is a relatively recent and evolving problem, the application of various common law mechanisms are explored, including the law of privacy and the law of nuisance. Various constitutional concerns may also arise in the context of spam, and the right to freedom of expression must be balanced against other competing rights and values, including the right to privacy. Comparative legislation is examined, because it is important to recognise trends in spam legislation in other jurisdictions so as to ensure a measure of interoperability with those laws. The practical difficulties in identifying spammers, and the lack of jurisdiction over offshore offenders affect the practical implementation of the current protection offered by the ECT Act. In conclusion, this thesis identifies the need for direct anti-spam legislation in South Africa, and suggests various clauses that will need to be catered for in the legislation. It is submitted that "opt-in" legislation should be preferred over "opt-out" legislation. It is further submitted that a definition of spam should be based on the volume and indiscriminate nature of the e-mail, and not only on whether the communication was commercial. Therefore, a definition of bulk unsolicited e-mail is proposed. / Criminal & Procedural Law / LLD

The needs of the free trade regime and governments' legitimate regulatory aims in the area of public health protection conflict. Government health measures create barriers to free trade and are thus disciplined by the trade regime. This conflict is addressed in the rules of the World Trade Organization, in the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. This Agreement uses science to mediate the conflict. The reason for the reliance on science is the view that it provides a neutral, universally-valid discipline and that thus the results of testing health measures for scientific validity would be acceptable to both parties in a dispute. This uncritical approach towards science is called into question. An analysis of the relevant science-based disciplines of the SPS Agreement and their interpretation in WTO dispute settlement shows the flaws in this system. A re-evaluation of the WTO rules governing health regulation is called for. / Law / LL.M.

O consumidor é o agente vulnerável na relação de consumo internacional. O processo de globalização se apresenta, para o consumidor, como uma globalização do consumo. A globalização do consumo se caracteriza pelo comércio e fornecimento internacional de produtos e serviços por empresários/fornecedores transnacionais/globais, utilizando marcas de renome mundial, acessíveis a todos os consumidores do planeta, e agrava a vulnerabilidade do consumidor no mercado. A proteção jurídica do consumidor internacional é uma necessidade que os sistemas jurídicos nacionais não se mostram aptos a prover adequadamente, assim como o Direito Internacional também não. A presente tese demonstra a deficiência da Ciência do Direito na proteção do consumidor no contexto da globalização; demonstra como o próprio comércio internacional é prejudicado ao não priorizar de maneira absoluta e efetiva a proteção do consumidor na OMC, bem como ao mostrar-se apático diante dos diferentes níveis de proteção proporcionada aos consumidores em cada diferente sistema jurídico nacional; demonstra, também, como a proteção do consumidor de maneira uniforme e global por um direito comum aos Estados é possível e será capaz de tornar mais eficiente economicamente o processo de globalização do consumo, ao encorajar a participação mais intensa do consumidor no mercado internacional; e propõe a construção de um novo ramo do Direito dedicado ao problema, o Direito Internacional do Consumidor (DIC), por meio da elaboração de uma Teoria do Direito Internacional do Consumidor. O Direito Internacional do Consumidor pretende ser um direito comum e universal de proteção ao consumidor, fundado em métodos, conceitos, institutos, normas e princípios jurídicos universais. O DIC dialogará com outros ramos do Direito Público e Privado, especialmente o Direito Internacional Econômico, o Direito Internacional do Comércio, o Direito Internacional Privado, o Direito Processual Civil Internacional, e o Direito do Consumidor. Pretende-se com isto atender ao ideal de promover o livre comércio internacional com respeito aos Direitos Humanos. / The consumer is the weak party in the cross-border consumer relation. The globalization process presents itself for the consumer as a globalization of consumers relations. The globalization of consumers relations is defined by international commerce and supply of products and services by transnational/global entrepreneurs/ suppliers, using global renowned brands names, available for all consumers of the planet, aggravating the consumers vulnerability in the market. The juridical international consumers protection is a necessity that has not been properly dealt with neither by the national legal systems nor by International Law. The present thesis shows the deficiency of Juridical Science to consumers protection in a globalization context; it shows how international commerce suffers harms when it does not prioritize the consumers protection in WTO, and when it has no reaction against different consumers protections levels by the distinct national legislation; it also shows, how consumers protection by a global and uniform law for all States is possible and can be more economically efficient for the process of globalization of consumers relations, because it encourages a intensive consumer participation in the international market; and proposes to build a new branch of law dedicated to the problem, the International Consumer Law (ICL), by a Theory of International Consumer Law. The International Consumer Law intends to be a general and universal law about consumers protection, based on universal methods, concepts, institutes, rules and principles. The ICL is going to dialogue with others branches of law, specially with International Economic Law, Global Trade Law, Private International Law (Conflict of Laws), Transnational Litigation Law, Consumer Protection Law and Products Liability Law. The intention of this thesis is to deal with the ideal of promoting free international trade taking into account respect for humans rights.

In the context of the Internet, spam generally refers to unsolicited and unwanted electronic messages, usually transmitted to a large number of recipients. The problem with spam is that almost all of the related costs are shifted onto the recipients, and many of the messages contain objectionable content. Spam has become a significant problem for network administrators, businesses and individual Internet users that threatens to undermine the usefulness of e-mail. Globally, spam spiralled to account for over 60% of all e-mail near the end of 2004. It is a problem that costs the global economy billions of dollars a year in lost productivity, anti-spam measures and computer resources. It has forced governments to enact legislation against the problem and it has prompted the development of numerous technical countermeasures. Spam can only be defeated by a combination of legal measures, informal measures (including self regulation and social norms), technical measures and consumer education. Because spam is a relatively recent and evolving problem, the application of various common law mechanisms are explored, including the law of privacy and the law of nuisance. Various constitutional concerns may also arise in the context of spam, and the right to freedom of expression must be balanced against other competing rights and values, including the right to privacy. Comparative legislation is examined, because it is important to recognise trends in spam legislation in other jurisdictions so as to ensure a measure of interoperability with those laws. The practical difficulties in identifying spammers, and the lack of jurisdiction over offshore offenders affect the practical implementation of the current protection offered by the ECT Act. In conclusion, this thesis identifies the need for direct anti-spam legislation in South Africa, and suggests various clauses that will need to be catered for in the legislation. It is submitted that "opt-in" legislation should be preferred over "opt-out" legislation. It is further submitted that a definition of spam should be based on the volume and indiscriminate nature of the e-mail, and not only on whether the communication was commercial. Therefore, a definition of bulk unsolicited e-mail is proposed. / Criminal and Procedural Law / LLD

O consumidor é o agente vulnerável na relação de consumo internacional. O processo de globalização se apresenta, para o consumidor, como uma globalização do consumo. A globalização do consumo se caracteriza pelo comércio e fornecimento internacional de produtos e serviços por empresários/fornecedores transnacionais/globais, utilizando marcas de renome mundial, acessíveis a todos os consumidores do planeta, e agrava a vulnerabilidade do consumidor no mercado. A proteção jurídica do consumidor internacional é uma necessidade que os sistemas jurídicos nacionais não se mostram aptos a prover adequadamente, assim como o Direito Internacional também não. A presente tese demonstra a deficiência da Ciência do Direito na proteção do consumidor no contexto da globalização; demonstra como o próprio comércio internacional é prejudicado ao não priorizar de maneira absoluta e efetiva a proteção do consumidor na OMC, bem como ao mostrar-se apático diante dos diferentes níveis de proteção proporcionada aos consumidores em cada diferente sistema jurídico nacional; demonstra, também, como a proteção do consumidor de maneira uniforme e global por um direito comum aos Estados é possível e será capaz de tornar mais eficiente economicamente o processo de globalização do consumo, ao encorajar a participação mais intensa do consumidor no mercado internacional; e propõe a construção de um novo ramo do Direito dedicado ao problema, o Direito Internacional do Consumidor (DIC), por meio da elaboração de uma Teoria do Direito Internacional do Consumidor. O Direito Internacional do Consumidor pretende ser um direito comum e universal de proteção ao consumidor, fundado em métodos, conceitos, institutos, normas e princípios jurídicos universais. O DIC dialogará com outros ramos do Direito Público e Privado, especialmente o Direito Internacional Econômico, o Direito Internacional do Comércio, o Direito Internacional Privado, o Direito Processual Civil Internacional, e o Direito do Consumidor. Pretende-se com isto atender ao ideal de promover o livre comércio internacional com respeito aos Direitos Humanos. / The consumer is the weak party in the cross-border consumer relation. The globalization process presents itself for the consumer as a globalization of consumers relations. The globalization of consumers relations is defined by international commerce and supply of products and services by transnational/global entrepreneurs/ suppliers, using global renowned brands names, available for all consumers of the planet, aggravating the consumers vulnerability in the market. The juridical international consumers protection is a necessity that has not been properly dealt with neither by the national legal systems nor by International Law. The present thesis shows the deficiency of Juridical Science to consumers protection in a globalization context; it shows how international commerce suffers harms when it does not prioritize the consumers protection in WTO, and when it has no reaction against different consumers protections levels by the distinct national legislation; it also shows, how consumers protection by a global and uniform law for all States is possible and can be more economically efficient for the process of globalization of consumers relations, because it encourages a intensive consumer participation in the international market; and proposes to build a new branch of law dedicated to the problem, the International Consumer Law (ICL), by a Theory of International Consumer Law. The International Consumer Law intends to be a general and universal law about consumers protection, based on universal methods, concepts, institutes, rules and principles. The ICL is going to dialogue with others branches of law, specially with International Economic Law, Global Trade Law, Private International Law (Conflict of Laws), Transnational Litigation Law, Consumer Protection Law and Products Liability Law. The intention of this thesis is to deal with the ideal of promoting free international trade taking into account respect for humans rights.

The needs of the free trade regime and governments' legitimate regulatory aims in the area of public health protection conflict. Government health measures create barriers to free trade and are thus disciplined by the trade regime. This conflict is addressed in the rules of the World Trade Organization, in the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. This Agreement uses science to mediate the conflict. The reason for the reliance on science is the view that it provides a neutral, universally-valid discipline and that thus the results of testing health measures for scientific validity would be acceptable to both parties in a dispute. This uncritical approach towards science is called into question. An analysis of the relevant science-based disciplines of the SPS Agreement and their interpretation in WTO dispute settlement shows the flaws in this system. A re-evaluation of the WTO rules governing health regulation is called for. / Law / LL.M.

The thesis deals with the question about necessary conditions to achieve the objective of a high level of consumer protection in the context of the ongoing internal electricity market taking into account the grid-bound electricity supply, which is characterized by the natural monopoly of regulated networks as well as by competition for the homogeneous product electricity. It evaluates the relationship between effective competition and energy sector-specific consumer protection taking into account the energy-specific regulatory law and examines in detail the regulations of the Directive 2009/72/EC concerning consumer protection under the perspective of enabling the responsible and informed consumer to operate as a self-determined market participant and so shape the market actively towards its completion. After art. 114 TFEU as the existing central norm concerning the alignment of the internal energy market is distinguished from other possible competence rules like the new energy sector-specific competence title of art. 194 TFEU the requirements developed by the ECJ case law concerning art. 114 TFEU from the point of view of the energy sector-specific consumer protection are presented. The thesis clarifies both to what extent in Directive 2009/72/EC codified consumer rights are suitable to achieve...

The practice of spamming (sending unsolicited electronic communications) has been dubbed “the scourge of the 21st century” affecting different stakeholders. This practice is also credited for not only disrupting electronic communications but also, it overloads electronic systems and creates unnecessary costs for those affected than the ones responsible for sending such communications. In trying to address this issue nations have implemented anti-spam laws to combat the scourge. South Africa not lagging behind, has put in place anti-spam provisions to deal with the scourge. The anti-spam provisions are scattered in pieces of legislation dealing with diverse issues including: consumer protection; direct marketing; credit laws; and electronic transactions and communications. In addition to these provisions, an Amendment Bill to one of these laws and two Bills covering cybercrimes and cyber-security issues have been published. In this thesis, a question is asked on whether the current fragmented anti-spam provisions are adequate in protecting consumers. Whether the overlaps between these pieces of legislation are competent to deal with the ever increasing threats on electronic communications at large. Finally, the question as to whether a multi-faceted approach, which includes a Model Law on spam would be a suitable starting point setting out requirements for the sending of unsolicited electronic communications can be sufficient in protecting consumers. And as spam is not only a national but also a global problem, South Africa needs to look at the option of entering into mutual agreements with other countries and organisations in order to combat spam at a global level. / Mercantile Law / LL. D.