How congruence cues and congruence-based expectations may together shape perception in virtual reality (VR) still need to be unravelled. We linked the concept of plausibility used in VR research with congruence-based modulation by assessing brain responses while participants experienced vehicle riding experiences in VR scenarios. Perceptual plausibility was manipulated by sensory congruence, with multisensory stimulations confirming with common expectations of road scenes being plausible. We hypothesized that plausible scenarios would elicit greater cortical responses. The results showed that: (i) vibrotactile stimulations at expected intensities, given embedded audio-visual information, engaged greater cortical activities in frontal and sensorimotor regions; (ii) weaker plausible stimulations resulted in greater responses in the sensorimotor cortex than stronger but implausible stimulations; (iii) frontal activities under plausible scenarios negatively correlated with plausibility violation costs in the sensorimotor cortex. These results potentially indicate frontal regulation of sensory processing and extend previous evidence of contextual modulation to the tactile sense.

Identification of human or nonhuman skeletal remains is important in assisting the police and law enforcement officers for the investigation of forensic cases. Identification of bone can be difficult, especially in fragmented remains. It has been reported that 25 to 30% of medicolegal cases, which involved nonhuman skeletal remains have been mistaken for human. In such cases, histomorphometric method was used to identify human and nonhuman skeletal remains. However, literature has shown that histomorphometric data for human and nonhuman bone were insufficient. Additionally, age estimation in bone may help in the identification of human individual, which can be done by using a histomorphometric method. Age estimation is based on bone remodeling process, where microstructural parameters have strong correlations with age. Literature showed that age estimation has been done on the American and European populations. However, little work has been done in the Asian population. The aims of this project were thus, to identify human and nonhuman bone, and to estimate age in human bones by using histomorphometric analysis. In this project, 64 human bones and 65 animal bones were collected from the mortuary of the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre and the Zoos in Malaysia, respectively. A standard bone preparation was used to prepare human and nonhuman bone thin sections for histomorphometric assessment. Assessments were made on the microstructural parameters such as cortical thickness, medullary cavity diameter, osteon count, osteon diameter, osteon area, osteon perimeter, Haversian canal diameter, Haversian canal area, Haversian canal perimeter, and Haversian lamella count per osteon by using image analysis, and viewed under a transmitted light microscope. The microstructural measurements showed significant differences between human and nonhuman samples. The discriminant functions showed correct classification rates for 81.4% of cases, and the accuracy of identification was 96.9% for human and 66.2% for animal. Human age estimation showed a standard error of estimate of 10.41 years, comparable with those in the literature. This study project offers distinct advantages over currently available histomorphometric methods for human and nonhuman identification and human age estimation. This will have significant implications in the assessment of fragmentary skeletal and forensic population samples for identification purposes.

<p> This thesis focuses on an examination of cortical and trabecular bone density and geometry at the radius and tibia in postmenopausal women, primarily women with history of breast carcinoma, while also assessing musculoskeletal changes in postmenopausal breast cancer patients after treatment with the Aromatase Inhibitor, Anastrozole. The first sub-study is an investigation of the reproducibility of the pQCT measurement parameters at the radius and tibia in healthy pre-and postmenopausal women. Results indicated that the reproducibility was good at the radius and even better at the tibia for all parameters measured. The second study is an appraisal of the level of osteoporosis knowledge in a cohort of postmenopausal women. The participants were assessed via the Facts on Osteoporosis Quiz, a well validated questionnaire, and the data revealed significantly lower test scores among the breast cancer subjects in comparison with healthy postmenopausal women. In the remaining group of studies, pQCT technology was utilized to describe trabecular and cortical bone at the radius and tibia in postmenopausal women and women with a history of breast carcinoma whom had been prescribed Anastrozole. The following measurement sites were significantly lower in the breast cancer subjects: TOT_DEN and TOT_CNT at the 4% radius; CRT_DEN, TOT_CNT, and CRT_CNT at the 20% radius; TOT_DEN at the 4% tibia; and CRT_DEN at the 38% tibia. With respect to time on Anastrozole, TOT_CNT at the 4% radius (r=-0.36); TOT_CNT (r=-0.33), CRT_CNT (r=-0.34) and CRT_DEN (r=-0.44) at the 20% radius; and CRT_DEN (r=-0.39) and CRT_CNT (r=-0.27) at the 38% tibia were significantly negatively correlated with days on Anastrozole. Furthermore, after two years of Anastrozole treatment in a small cohort of breast cancer subjects, there was a significant decrease in CRT_DEN (p=0.025) at the 20% diaphyseal radius and also at the 38% diaphyseal tibia (p=0.051). Together, the sub-studies that comprise this thesis demonstrate that there are noteworthy deficiencies in osteoporosis knowledge among postmenopausal women, particularly those with a history of breast carcinoma, and yet, these are the same women that have an increased need to understand the preventative and treatment options regarding this disease as they demonstrate reduced bone density at all measurement sites. It also appears that time on Anastrozole primarily affects cortical bone density in these women. In summary, this thesis provides novel details regarding cortical bone in breast cancer subjects and emphasizes the need for a normative database of bone quality parameters at different skeletal sites in order to gain a better understanding of the utility of each skeletal site with regard to fracture risk prediction. </p> / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Le cortex cérébral est impliqué dans plusieurs fonctions entre autres le traitement des informations sensorielles. Il inclut des zones recevant directement une entrée sensorielle telle que le cortex visuel primaire (V1) qui traite les informations visuelles. Au niveau du V1 des mammifères, chaque neurone présente une combinaison préférentielle de stimuli pour lesquels sa réponse est optimale. Cela dit, chaque attribut de stimulus tel que les fréquences temporelle et spatiale, l’orientation et la direction du mouvement induit une réponse maximale du neurone. Le neurone du V1 est donc sélectif. Cependant, cette sélectivité n’est pas le résultat de l’activité du neurone en question seul, mais plutôt du réseau neuronal dans lequel il est impliqué. L’ensemble des préférences d’un neurone ainsi que le réseau neuronal auquel il appartient demeurent sensiblement inchangés, tant que les facteurs contextuels ne varient que peu ou pas. Toutefois, si les composantes de l’environnement changent de manière imposante, la sélectivité neuronale et l’organisation du réseau original seront modifiées pour induire un nouvel état d’équilibre. C’est la plasticité neuronale. Le but ultime de cette thèse est de comprendre et d’approfondir les connaissances relatives aux mécanismes régissant la sélectivité à l’orientation ainsi que la plasticité dans V1, et ce, par différentes études qui sont organisées, dans cette thèse en trois sections. Les sections (3) et (4) se basent sur une étude pharmacologique qui vise à examiner l’effet de la kétamine sur la sélectivité à l’orientation (section 3) et sur l’adaptation visuelle tout en traitant la connectivité neuronale (section 4). La section (5) vise à examiner l’effet de l’adaptation sur l’affinité des courbes d’accord des neurones. Ce travail a permis d’étudier l’effet de la kétamine et de l’adaptation visuelle sur les propriétés sélectives à l’orientation des neurones ainsi que sur la dynamique des relations fonctionnelles au sein du microcircuit. / The cerebral cortex plays a key role in several functions including the processing of sensory information. It contains areas that receive direct sensory input such as the primary visual cortex (V1) which processes visual information. V1 neurons of mammals are selective for several attributes, such as spatial and temporal frequencies, orientation, and direction of motion. Thus, V1 neurons exhibit selectivities. This neuronal selectivity rests in the convergence of clusters of synapses involved in the network. Neural selectivity and networks are formed during the sensitive period of brain development and is present throughout the animal’s life. However, in V1 during postnatal life, the neuronal selectivity and the neural circuitry are further shaped by experience, thus, rendering it plastic. The main objective of the current thesis is to understand the mechanisms involved in the orientation selectivity as well as the neuroplasticity in V1. To this aim, different investigations, organized in this thesis, in three sections, were carried out. The sections (3) and (4) are based on a pharmacological study that aim to examine the effect of ketamine on orientation selectivity (section 3) and on visual adaptation in relation with neural connectivity (section 4). The study presented in the third section (section 5) investigated the effect of adaptation on the cell’s tuning. Here, we disclose the effects of ketamine and visual adaptation on the cell’s tuning properties as well as on the dynamics of functional relationships between neurons in the microcircuit.

La synaptogenèse est un processus biologique aboutissant à la mise en place d’un réseau de connexions neuronales, par la genèse de synapses. La mise en place de ce réseau de connexions est essentielle au développement du système nerveux central (SNC) et de ses fonctions. Tout comme les autres étapes du développement du SNC, la synaptogenèse est régulée par une multitude de signaux cellulaires, et le système endocannabinoïde en fait partie. Les dérivés du cannabis tel que le Δ-9-tétrahydrocannabinol (THC) et le cannabidiol (CBD) sont capables de traverser la barrière placentaire et de se retrouver dans le lait maternel. Par leur interaction avec le SNC, entre autres, ces phytocannabinoïdes sont capables d’influencer son développement. Le récepteur couplé à une protéine G 55 (GPR55) est catégorisé comme récepteur atypique du système endocannabinoïde, et il est capable d’être antagonisé par le CBD. Il a été prouvé par de précédentes études qu’il est lui aussi impliqué dans le développement du SNC, notamment dans le guidage et la croissance des axones durant les périodes fœtale et périnatale. Dans la littérature, il est souvent rapporté que les signaux impliqués dans le guidage axonal le sont aussi dans la synaptogenèse. C’est pourquoi le présent mémoire vise à examiner le rôle du récepteur GPR55 et l’effet de sa modulation par le CBD dans la formation de contacts synaptiques. Le modèle utilisé pour cette étude est la culture de neurones corticaux issus d’embryons de souris de génotypes gpr55+/+ et gpr55-/-. Pour comprendre le rôle physiologique de GPR55 dans la synaptogenèse nous avons étudié l’effet de la délétion du récepteur GPR55 à deux temps, Day In Vitro (DIV) 9-10 au début de la synaptogenèse, et à DIV14-15 un temps plus avancé. Ensuite pour comprendre comment le CBD est capable d’influencer la formation de contacts synaptiques de manière dépendante ou non de GPR55, les cultures de neurones corticaux de chaque génotype ont été exposées à DIV9 pour 24h à différentes concentrations du CBD (0,3uM ou 0,6uM ou 1uM). Les effets sur la formation de contacts synaptiques ont été étudiés en immunocytochimie, en immunobuvardage et en électrophysiologie de type patch clamp. Les résultats montrent que la délétion de GPR55 entraine à DIV14-15 une augmentation de la densité des contacts synaptiques, mais une réduction de leur aire et de l’expression de la synaptophysine, en affectant l’activité synaptique. L’exposition au CBD 0,6uM et 1uM entrainent de manière dépendante ou partiellement dépendante à GPR55, une augmentation de la densité des contacts synaptiques sans affecter leur aire, l’expression de protéines synaptiques ainsi que l’activité synaptique. La fréquence de décharge des neurones est diminuée de manière dépendante de GPR55 après l’exposition au CBD 1uM. Ces résultats suggèrent que GPR55 pourrait être un signal important pour l’arrêt de la formation de nouvelles synapses et un signal d’induction pour la maturation des synapses existantes. / Synaptogenesis is a biological process that leads to the establishment of a network of neuronal connections through the genesis of synapses. The formation of this network of connections is essential for the development of the central nervous system (CNS) and its functions. Like other stages of CNS development, synaptogenesis is regulated by multiple cellular signals, and the endocannabinoid system is part of it. Cannabis derivatives such as Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) can cross the placental barrier and be present in breast milk. Through their interaction with the endocannabinoid system, among others, these phytocannabinoids can influence CNS development. The G protein-coupled receptor 55 (GPR55) is categorized as an atypical receptor of the endocannabinoid system, and it can be antagonized by CBD. Previous studies have shown that GPR55 is also involved in CNS development, particularly in the guidance and growth of axons during fetal and perinatal periods. It is often reported in the literature that the signals involved in axonal guidance are also involved in synaptogenesis. Therefore, this study investigates the role of the GPR55 receptor and the effect of its modulation by CBD in the formation of synaptic contacts. The model used for this study consists of cortical neuron cultures from mouse embryos gpr55+/+ and gpr55-/- . To understand the physiological role of GPR55 in synaptogenesis, we studied the effect of gpr55 deletion at two-time points: Day In Vitro (DIV) 9- 10 at the beginning of synaptogenesis, and DIV14-15 at a later time point. Then, to understand how CBD can influence the formation of synaptic contacts, whether dependent or independent of GPR55, cortical neuron cultures of each genotype were exposed to different concentrations of CBD (0.3µM or 0.6µM or 1µM) at DIV9 for 24 hours. The effects on the formation of synaptic contacts were studied through immunocytochemistry, western blot, and patch clamp electrophysiology. The results show that gpr55 deletion leads to an increase in synaptic contact density at DIV14-15 but a reduction in their area and synaptophysin expression, by affecting synaptic activity. Exposure to 0.6µM and 1µM CBD results in a GPR55-dependent or partially dependent increase in synaptic contact density without affecting their area, expression of synaptic proteins, and synaptic activity. The firing frequency of neurons is decreased in a GPR55- dependent manner after exposure to 1µM CBD. These results suggest that GPR55 could be an important signal for stopping the formation of new synapses and an induction signal for the maturation of existing synapses.

Introduction: Memory is a complex cognitive process formerly linked to mechanisms of brain plasticity that can be estimated in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) using transcranial magnetic stimulation and electroencephalography (TMS-EEG). Also, cortical thickness in the DLPFC may be a potential proxy measure of brain plasticity as previous literature reports a link between better memory and thicker cortex. However, the link between brain plasticity and memory performance as well as DLPFC thickness remains to be clarified. Methods: Intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS) probed plasticity-like mechanisms in the left DLPFC in 17 cognitively healthy participants. TMS-EEG recordings were performed before and after sham and active iTBS to quantify plasticity via transcranial magnetic stimulation-evoked potentials (TEPs). Composite memory scores for each domain (verbal episodic, visual episodic and working memory) were obtained using the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery. Anatomical T1 images were acquired by magnetic resonance imaging and processed by open-source software (CIVET) and the Automated Anatomical Labeling atlas to extract cortical thickness of the DLPFC. All statistical analyses (linear mixed model, Tukey's post hoc test and Pearson's correlations) were completed in R Studio. Results: iTBS resulted in increased TEP amplitude P30 (F= 5.239, p = 0.029), as shown by a significant interaction between condition (iTBS, sham) and time (pre- and post-condition). Specifically, Tukey's post hoc test revealed that the P30 increase was near trending significant post-iTBS compared to pre-iTBS for the active condition (p = 0.166) but not for the sham condition (p = 0.294). A trending significant relationship was observed between the magnitude of P30 change post-iTBS and thicker left DLPFC (r = 0.488; p = 0.108). Lastly, no significant relationships between P30 change and memory performance were observed. Conclusion: These preliminary findings suggest there could be a relationship between increased capacity for brain plasticity and a thicker left DLPFC. To further investigate these relationships, we plan to recruit additional cognitively healthy participants. Our preliminary findings support the foundation for future clinical studies in which DLPFC thickness could be explored as a predictive factor for response to plasticity-targeting iTBS treatment.

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