La transformada de Abel es una técnica de inversión usada frecuentemente en radio ocultaciones (RO) que, en el contexto ionosférico, permite deducir densidades electrónicas a partir de datos de STEC (Slant Total Electron Content) derivados a partir de observaciones de la fase portadora. Esta técnica está basada en medidas precisas en doble frecuencia de fase portadora ( banda L) de un receptor GPS a bordo de un satélite de órbita baja (Low Earth Orbit -LEO-) rastreando un satélite GPS detrás del limbo de la tierra. Al combinar tales medidas con la información de posiciones y velocidades de los satélites GPS y LEO, es posible deducir el cambio en el camino de la señal debido a la presencia de la atmósfera y, consecuentemene, convertirlo en ángulos de curvatura (bending angles). A partir de ellos, información sobre el índice de refracción vertical puede ser obtenida a través de técnicas de inversión, y transformarlo en perfiles verticales de densidad electrónica y/o perfiles de atmósfera neutra. Una de las hipótesis básicas de la inversión clásica es suponer que el campo de densidades electrónicas tiene simetría esférica en la vecindad de una ocultación. Sin embargo, a la práctica, la huella de una ocultación generalmente cubre regiones de miles de km que puede presentar variabilidad ionosférica importante; por lo cuál, la hipótesis de simetría esférica no puede ser garantizada. De hecho, las inhomogeneidades de la densidad electrónica en la dirección veritcal para una ocultación dada son una de las principales causas de error cuando se usa la inversión de Abel inversion. Para corregir el error debido a la hipótesis de simetría esférica, se introduce el concepto de separabilidad. Ello implica que la densidad electrónica puede ser expresada como una combinación de datos de Vertical Total Electron Content (VTEC) derivados externamente, los cuales asumen la dependencia horizontal de la densidad, y una función de forma, que a su vez asume la dependencia en altura que es común a todas las observaciones para una ocultación dada. Nótese que el espesor de capa permanece constante cerca de la región de la ocultación debido a la hipótesis de separabilidad en vez de la densidad, como ocurriría en el caso de usar simetría esférica. Esta técnica fue aplicada exitosamente a la combinación lineal de fases de GPS L1 y L2, , LI= L1-2, la cuál proporcionar un observable libre de geometría que depende sólo del retraso ionosférico, la ambigüedad de fase, biases instrumentales y wind-up. Los resultados presentaban una mejora del 40% en RMS al comparar frecuencias del pico de la capa F2 con datos de ionosonda respecto la inversión clásica de Abel. Sin embargo, la potencial influencia de la diferencia de caminos ópticos entre L1 y L2 fue despreciada. Esta tesis doctoral muestra que ello no es un problema para la inversión a alturas ionosféricas. Una alternativa para la inversión de perfiles que evita esta desventaja es usar la curvatura de la señal como dato principal. La implementación de la separabilidad para ángulos de curvatura no es inmediata y ha sido uno de los objetivos de esta tesis. En este sentido, el principio de la separabilidad ha sido aplicado a los ángulos de curvatura de L1 en vez de la la combinación LI como en trabajos anteriores. Además, trabajando con ángulos de curvatura, la separabilidad puede ser también trasladada a la obtención de perfiles troposféricos. Varias aproximaciones para obtener la contribución de las partes altas de la ionosfera han sido también estudiadas, aparte del hecho de simplemente prescindir de esta contribución. Se ha usado un modelo climatológico, una extrapolación exponencial y el hecho de considerar las implicaciones de usar separabilidad. También se ha propuesto una manera para obtener funciones de mapeo (mapping functions) deducidas a partir de perfiles RO. Sin embargo, trabajando sólo con datos derivados únicamente de RO, se está sistematicamente despreciando la contribución de la protonosfera al TEC. Con la propuesta inicial de función de mapeo sólo la contribución ionosférica es tenida en cuenta. La solución ideal para aplicaciones de datos de tierra GNSS sería usar un modelo de dos capas, una para modelar la ionosfera y otra para la protonosfera, o alternativamente, si se quisiera alta resolución tomográfica, combinar observaciones RO y con elevación positiva de LEOs con datos de tierra. Se ha probado que modelando con dos capas, los resultados que se habían obtenido con el análisis de datos RO han podido ser validados. La conclusión más importante es que la proporción entre la contribución ionosférica y protonosférica es el parámetro que explica la localización de las alturas efectivas. / La transformada d’Abel és una tècnica emprada freqüentment en radio ocultacions (RO) que, en el context ionosfèric, permet deduir densitats electròniques a partir de dades de STEC (Slant Total Electron Content) derivats a partir d’observacions de la fase portadora. Aquesta tècnica està basada en mesures precises en doble freqüència de fase portadora (banda L) d’un receptor GPS a bord d’un satèl·lit d’òrbita baixa (Low Earth Orbit-LEO-) rastrejant un satèl·lit GPS darrere del limb de la terra. En combinar les dites mesures amb la informació de posicions i velocitats dels satèl·lits GPS i LEO, és possible deduir el canvi en el camí del senyal degut a la presència de l’atmosfera i, conseqüentment, convertir-lo en angles de curvatura (bending angles). A partir d’ells, informació sobre l’índex de refracció vertical pot ser obtinguda mitjançant tècniques d’inversió i transformar-lo en perfils verticals de densitat electrònica i/o perfils d’atmosfera neutra. Una de les hipòtesis bàsiques de la inversió clàssica és suposar que el camp de densitats electròniques té simetria esfèrica en el veïnatge d’una ocultació. Tanmateix, a la pràctica, la petjada d’una ocultació generalment cobreix regions de milers de quilòmetres que pot presentar variabilitat ionosfèrica important; per la qual cosa, la hipòtesi de simetria esfèrica no pot ser garantida. De fet, les inhomogeneitats de la densitat electrònica en la direcció vertical per a una ocultació donada són una de les principals causes d’error quan es fa servir la inversió d’Abel. Per a corregir l’error a causa de la hipòtesi de simetria esfèrica, s’introdueix el concepte de separabilitat. Això implica que la densitat electrònica pot ser expressada com una combinació de dades de Vertical Total Electron Content (VTEC) derivats externament, els quals assumeixen la dependència horitzontal de la densitat, i una funció de forma, la qual alhora assumeix la dependència en altura que és comuna a totes les observacions per a una ocultació donada. Cal notar que l’espessor de capa roman constant a prop de la regió de l’ocultació a causa de la hipòtesi de separabilitat en comptes de la densitat, tal i com succeiria en el cas de fer servir simetria esfèrica. Aquesta tècnica fou aplicada amb èxit a la combinació lineal de fases de GPS L1 i L2, LI=L1-2, la qual proporciona un observable lliure de geometria que depèn només del retard ionosfèric, l’ambigüitat de fase, biases instrumentals i wind-up. Els resultats presenten una millora del 40% en RMS en comparar freqüències del pic de la capa F2 amb dades de ionosonda respecte la inversió clàssica d’Abel. No obstant, la potencial influència de la diferència de camins òptics entre L1 i L2 fou menyspreada. Aquesta tesi doctoral mostra que això no és pas un problema per a la inversió a altures ionosfèriques. Una alternativa per a la inversió de perfils que evita aquesta desavantatge és emprar la curvatura del senyal com a dada principal. La implementació de la separabilitat per a angles de curvatura no és immediata i ha estat un dels objectius d’aquesta tesi. En aquest sentit, el principi de la separabilitat ha esta aplicat als angles de curvatura de L1 en comptes de la combinació LI com en treballs anterior. A més, treballant amb angles de curvatura, la separabilitat pot ser també traslladada a l’obtenció de perfils troposfèrics. Varies aproximacions per a obtenir la contribució de les parts altes de la ionosfera han estat també estudiades, apart del fet de prescindir simplement d’aquesta contribució. S’ha fet servir un model climatològic, una extrapolació exponencial i el fet de considera les implicacions d’usar separabilitat. També s’ha proposat una manera pera obtenir funcions de mapeo (mapping functions) deduïdes a partir de perfils RO. Tanmateix, treballant només amb dades derivades únicament de RO, s’està menyspreant sistemàticament la contribució de la protonosfera al TEC. Amb la proposta inicial de funció de mapeo només tenim en compte la contribució ionosfèrica. La solució ideal per a aplicacions de dades de terra GNSS seria fer servir un model de dues capes, una per a modelar la ionosfera i una altra per la protonosfera, o alternativament, si es volgués alta resolució tomogràfica, combinar observacions RO i amb elevació positiva de LEOs amb dades de terra. S’ha provat que modelant amb dues capes, els resultats obtinguts amb l’anàlisi de dades RO han pogut estar validats. La conclusió més important és que la proporció entre la contribució ionosfèrica i protonosfèrica és el paràmetre que explica la localització de les altures efectives. / The Abel transform is a frequently used radio occultation (RO) inversion technique which, in the ionospheric context, allows retrieving electron densities as a function of height from STEC (Slant Total Electron Content) measurements derived from carrier phase observations. The GPS RO technique is based on precise carrier dual-frequency phase measurements (L-band) of a GPS receiver onboard a Low Earth Orbit satellite (LEO) tracking a rising or setting GPS satellite behind the limb of the earth. When combining such measurements with the information from the positions and velocities of GPS and LEO satellites, it is possible to derive the phase path change due to the atmosphere during an occultation event which subsequently can be converted into bending angles. From these, information about the vertical refraction index can be obtained by means of inversion techniques, which can then be converted into ionospheric vertical electron density profiles and/or neutral atmospheric profiles. One of the basic assumptions in the classical approach is to assume the spherical symmetry of the electron density field in the vicinity of an occultation. However, in practice, the footprint of an occultation generally covers wide regions of thousands of kilometres in length that may show significant ionospheric variability; therefore this hypothesis cannot be guaranteed. Indeed, inhomogeneous electron density in the horizontal direction for a given occultation is believed to be one of the main sources of error when using the Abel inversion. In order to correct the error due to the spherical symmetry assumption, the separability concept is introduced and applied. This implies that the electron density can be expressed by a combination of externally derived Vertical Total Electron Content (VTEC) data, which assumes the horizontal dependency, and a shape function, which in turn assumes the height dependency that is common to all the observations for a given occultation. Note that the slab thickness remains constant near the occultation due to the separability hypothesis instead of the density as is the case of the spherical symmetry. This technique was successfully applied to the linear combination of the GPS carrier phases L1 and L2, , LI= L1-2 which is a geometric free observable that depends only on the ionospheric delay, phase ambiguity, instrumental bias and wind-up. The result was an improvement of about 40% in RMS when comparing frequencies of the F2 layer peak with ionosonde data and the classical Abel inversion. The main advantage of such developed technique is its simple computation. Nevertheless, the potential influence of the different signal paths between L1 and L2 was neglected. Regarding this aspect, this Ph.D. dissertation shows that is not a problem for inversion at ionospheric heights. An alternative to inverting the profile, which overcomes this disadvantage, is to use the bending angle of the signal as the main input data. The implementation of separability when using the bending angle is not immediate and was, actually, one of the goals of this thesis. In this sense, the separability approach has been applied to measured L1 bending angle, instead of LI combination as reported in previous work. Additionally, this approach could also be translated to tropospheric profile retrievals. Several approaches to account for the upper ionospheric contribution have been also tackled, apart from the fact of neglecting such contribution: a climatological model, an exponential extrapolation and condisering the nature of the separability concept. it has been proposed a way to obtain mapping functions derived from RO profiles. Such mapping functions can be easily derived from usual ionospheric parameters. For the contribution of this part of the ionosphere, it has been shown that it is capable to account for the total electron content (TEC). However, by working solely with RO derived data, we are systematically neglecting the contribution of the protonosphere to the total electron content. With the initial proposed mapping function based on the analysis of effective heights derived from RO, only the ionospheric contribution is accounted for. The ideal solution for ground-based GNSS data applications would be to use a two-layer model, one to model the ionosphere and another one for the protonosphere, or alternatively, if we are looking for high tomographic resolution, to combine RO and topside LEO observations with ground data. It has been shown that by modelling in such way, the results that were obtained with RO data analysis can be validated. The most important conclusion is that the ratio between ionospheric and protonospheric contribution is the driver for the location of the effective heights.

Observations from the 1930s until the present have established the existence of dark matter with an abundance that is much larger than that of luminous matter. Because none of the known particles of nature have the correct properties to be identified as the dark matter, various exotic candidates have been proposed. The neutralino of supersymmetric theories is the most promising example. Such cold dark matter candidates, however, lead to a conflict between the standard simulations of the evolution of cosmic structure and observations. Simulations predict excessive structure formation on small scales, including density cusps at the centers of galaxies, that is not observed. This conflict still persists in early 2007, and it has not yet been convincingly resolved by attempted explanations that invoke astrophysical phenomena, which would destroy or broaden all small scale structure. We have investigated another candidate that is perhaps more exotic: Lorentz-violating dark matter, which was originally motivated by an unconventional fundamental theory, but which in this dissertation is defined as matter which has a nonzero minimum velocity. Furthermore, the present investigation evolved into the broader goal of exploring the properties of Lorentz-violating matter and the astrophysical consequences – a subject which to our knowledge has not been previously studied. Our preliminary investigations indicated that this form of matter might have less tendency to form small-scale structure. These preliminary calculations certainly established that Lorentz-violating matter which always moves at an appreciable fraction of the speed of light will bind less strongly. However, the much more thorough set of studies reported here lead to the conclusion that, although the binding energy is reduced, the small-scale structure problem is not solved by Lorentz-violating dark matter. On the other hand, when we compare the predictions of Lorentz-violating dynamics with those of classical special relativity and general relativity, we find that differences might be observable in the orbital motions of galaxies in a cluster. For example, galaxies – which are composed almost entirely of dark matter – observed to have enlarged orbits about the cluster center of mass may be an indication of Lorentz violation.

<p>This thesis represents the ontological model for the Time Aspects for a Healthcare Organization. It provides information about activities which take place at different interval of time at Ryhov Hospital. These activities are series of actions which may be happen in predefined sequence and at predefined times or may be happen at any time in a General ward or in Emergency ward of a Ryhov Hospital.</p><p>For achieving above mentioned objective, our supervisor conducts a workshop at the start of thesis. In this workshop, the domain experts explain the main idea of ward activities. From this workshop; the author got a lot of knowledge about activities and time aspects. After this, the author start literature review for achieving valuable knowledge about ward activities, time aspects and also methodology steps which are essentials for ontological model. After developing ontological model for Time Aspects, our supervisor also conducts a second workshop. In this workshop, the author presents the model for evaluation purpose.</p>

The vacuum of quantum field theory is not empty space but filled with quantum vacuum fluctuations, which give rise to many intriguing effects. The first part of this Thesis addresses cosmic inflation, where the quantum fluctuations of the inflaton field freeze and get amplified in the expanding universe. Afterwards, we turn our attention towards Bose-Einstein condensates, a laboratory system. Since most of our calculations are performed using a mean-field expansion, we will study the accuracy of a finite-range interaction potential onto such an expansion. Exploiting the universality of quantum fluctuations, several aspects of cosmic inflation will be identified in ballistically expanding Bose-Einstein condensates. The effective action technique for calculating the quantum backreaction will be scrutinized. Finally, we consider dynamic quantum phase transitions in the last part of this Thesis. To this end two specific scenarios will be investigated: firstly, the structure formation during the superfluid to Mott-insulator transition in the Bose-Hubbard model; and secondly, the formation of spin domains as a two-dimensional spin-one Bose gas is quenched from the (polar) paramagnetic to the (planar) ferromagnetic phase. During this quench, the symmetry of the ground state is spontaneously broken and vortices (topological defects) form.

We calculate the angular power spectrum of the cosmic microwave background temperature fluctuations induced by the kinetic Sunyaev-Zel'dovich (kSZ) effect from the epoch of reionization (EOR). We use detailed N-body+radiative-transfer simulations to follow inhomogeneous reionization of the intergalactic medium. For the first time, we take into account the "self-regulation" of reionization: star formation in low-mass dwarf galaxies or minihalos is suppressed if these halos form in the regions that were already ionized or Lyman-Werner dissociated. Some previous work suggested that the amplitude of the kSZ power spectrum from the EOR can be described by a two-parameter family: the epoch of half-ionization and the duration of reionization. However, we argue that this picture applies only to simple forms of the reionization history which are roughly symmetric about the half-ionization epoch. In self-regulated reionization, the universe begins to be ionized early, maintains a low level of ionization for an extended period, and then finishes reionization as soon as high-mass atomically cooling halos dominate. While inclusion of self-regulation affects the amplitude of the kSZ power spectrum only modestly (~10%), it can change the duration of reionization by a factor of more than two. We conclude that the simple two-parameter family does not capture the effect of a physical, yet complex, reionization history caused by self-regulation. When added to the post-reionization kSZ contribution, our prediction for the total kSZ power spectrum is below the current upper bound from the South Pole Telescope. Therefore, the current upper bound on the kSZ effect from the EOR is consistent with our understanding of the physics of reionization. / text

Double Chooz is a short-baseline experiment, located at the Chooz power plant, designed to observe the neutrino oscillation signal controlled by the θ13 mixing angle. Part of my scientific research, as a graduate student, was directed towards the development of the software needed for the calibration of the Double Chooz Inner Veto and the analysis of the data associated with this task. I was responsible for the quality tests performed in every photomultiplier prior to its installation. I completed all the necessary measurements and analysed the data, extracting the first set of gains and determining the nominal high voltage values needed to be applied in all photomultipliers. All this information served as valuable input to the detector configuration. I was also responsible for the Inner Veto photomultiplier gain analysis during the first months of data taking. I was also very actively involved in data analysis and the estimations of the various sources of background. I initiated a number of methods to isolate and study the cosmic muon events that activate the detector. Additionally I worked on the estimation of the fast neutron rate registered in the detector. The techniques I put forward played a key role and were used in the first Double Chooz publication. Finally, I developed a set of algorithms to identify and reject an instrumental background, relevant for the Double Chooz detector using topological information of the deposited charge.

The solar minimum of 2009 has been identified as an exceptional event with regard to cosmic ray (CR)modulation, since conditions in the heliosphere have reached unprecedented quiet levels. This unique minimum has been observed by the Earth–orbiting satellite, PAMELA, launched in June, 2006, from which vast sets of accurate proton and electron preliminary observations have been made available. These simultaneous measurements from PAMELA provide the ideal opportunity to conduct an in–depth study of CR modulation, in particular charge–sign dependent modulation. In utilizing this opportunity, a three–dimensional, steady–state modulation model was used to reproduce a selection of consecutive PAMELA proton and electron spectra from 2006 to 2009. Thiswas done by assuming full drifts and simplified diffusion coefficients, where the rigidity dependence and absolute value of themean free paths for protons and electrons were sequentially adjusted below 3 GV and 300 MV, respectively. Care has been taken in calculating yearly–averaged current–sheet tilt angle and magnetic field values that correspond to the PAMELA spectra. Following this study where the numerical model was used to investigate the individual effects resulting from changes in the tilt angle, diffusion coefficients, and global drifts, it was found that all these modulation processes played significant roles in contributing to the total increase in CR intensities from 2006 to 2009, as was observed by PAMELA. Furthermore, the effect that drifts has on oppositely charged particles was also evident from the difference between the peak–shaped time profiles of protons and the flatter time profiles of electrons, as is expected for an A < 0 polarity cycle. Since protons, which drift into the heliosphere along the heliospheric current–sheet, haven’t yet reached maximum intensity levels by 2008, their intensities increased notably more than electrons toward the end of 2009. The time and energy dependence of the electron to proton ratios were also studied in order to further illustrate and quantify the effect of drifts during this remarkable solar minimum period. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Physics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

The solar minimum of 2009 has been identified as an exceptional event with regard to cosmic ray (CR)modulation, since conditions in the heliosphere have reached unprecedented quiet levels. This unique minimum has been observed by the Earth–orbiting satellite, PAMELA, launched in June, 2006, from which vast sets of accurate proton and electron preliminary observations have been made available. These simultaneous measurements from PAMELA provide the ideal opportunity to conduct an in–depth study of CR modulation, in particular charge–sign dependent modulation. In utilizing this opportunity, a three–dimensional, steady–state modulation model was used to reproduce a selection of consecutive PAMELA proton and electron spectra from 2006 to 2009. Thiswas done by assuming full drifts and simplified diffusion coefficients, where the rigidity dependence and absolute value of themean free paths for protons and electrons were sequentially adjusted below 3 GV and 300 MV, respectively. Care has been taken in calculating yearly–averaged current–sheet tilt angle and magnetic field values that correspond to the PAMELA spectra. Following this study where the numerical model was used to investigate the individual effects resulting from changes in the tilt angle, diffusion coefficients, and global drifts, it was found that all these modulation processes played significant roles in contributing to the total increase in CR intensities from 2006 to 2009, as was observed by PAMELA. Furthermore, the effect that drifts has on oppositely charged particles was also evident from the difference between the peak–shaped time profiles of protons and the flatter time profiles of electrons, as is expected for an A < 0 polarity cycle. Since protons, which drift into the heliosphere along the heliospheric current–sheet, haven’t yet reached maximum intensity levels by 2008, their intensities increased notably more than electrons toward the end of 2009. The time and energy dependence of the electron to proton ratios were also studied in order to further illustrate and quantify the effect of drifts during this remarkable solar minimum period. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Physics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

Beryllium-7 is a cosmogenic radionuclide produced in the atmosphere through the spallation of nitrogen and oxygen nuclei by cosmic-ray-produced neutrons and protons. It is carried in the atmosphere attached to aerosols and is deposited on land and ocean surfaces by wet and dry deposition processes. Beryllium-7 decays by electron capture to lithium-7 and has a half-life of approximately 53 days. It is a potentially useful radionuclide for studying different natural processes. This thesis presents a collection of scientific papers on the occurrence of beryllium-7 in the natural environment, particularly in the Southeast Queensland region of Australia. It shows the results of experimental measurements and discusses their implications. Overall, this thesis contributes to advancing our understanding of the distribution and behaviour of beryllium-7 in the natural environment and provides a foundation for the development of nuclear techniques for the evaluation of environmental problems.

The field of noble gas mass spectrometry is a rapidly developing one. There is a sustained requirement for continuous development of instrumentation in order to allow researchers to answer critical questions facing their respective fields. Within planetary science, the question of whether our solar system is 'typical', has been a driving force behind many lines of research. This project sought to build upon the strong instrumental base of the Isotope Geochemistry and Cosmochemistry group of the University of Manchester, in order to develop the Resonance Ionisation Mass Spectrometer for Krypton Isotopes. From that basis, it then sought to develop techniques and protocols for the analysis of extra-terrestrial samples, particularly those of very low mass. The thesis is broken down into three studies. The first involved the development of the mechanisms used to fill the Xe-Ar four-wave mixing cell. This section covers the development, implementation, and characterisation of the newly installed mass flow controllers. The additional control over the mixing ratio granted allowed an eightfold increase to the sensitivity of the instrument. The reproducibility of the gas ratio is consistently shown throughout, and has ultimately reduced the tuning time of the instrument from a number of weeks to a day. The second section details the required procedures involved in data reduction, and the development of protocols and software for the RIMSKI instrument. A range of approaches are assessed, including a novel approach to cosmic ray exposure age calculations. The methods are discussed and implemented on extra-terrestrial samples, the Stannern eucrite and the Bereba eucrite. Finally, the analytical limits of the RIMSKI instrument are expanded via the measurement of the krypton systems of individual calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions. It is observed that Allende CAIs show a trapped component, Br-derived Kr, as well as an anomalous 'heavy Kr' component (one that is enriched in 86Kr). It is additionally noted that there is a lack of cosmogenic krypton to be found in all but one of the measured inclusions. The implications of these findings are discussed.