In this thesis, we present our two studies focused on the detection of cosmic γ-rays and the analysis of data from γ-ray observations. One study deals with the method of the Cherenkov transparency coefficient. This method is suitable for the detector calibration in experiments employing imaging atmo- spheric Cherenkov telescopes for the indirect detection of cosmic γ-rays. Us- ing rates of recorded air showers initiated by charged cosmic rays, the method aims at the monitoring of the atmospheric transparency to Cherenkov light and the calibration of the responses of Cherenkov telescopes. We present an extension of this method for the purposes of the Cherenkov Telescope Array observatory and demonstrate its feasibility using Monte Carlo simu- lations. Our other analysis utilizes more than 7 years of data from direct γ-ray observations by the Fermi Large Area Telescope. We describe in detail signal observed from the parts of the sky around the active galactic nuclei 1ES 0229+200 and Centaurus A. We report on the findings of new astro- physical sources of high energy photons and document spectral and temporal properties of their γ-ray fluxes. 1

Cosmic rays of energies above 1014 eV are detected mostly indirectly, by observing the extensive air showers they create in the atmosphere. Multiple experiments suggest that the current models of high-energy interactions do not describe the cosmic ray data perfectly, in particular when it comes to the prediction for the number of muons at ground. We present two models aiming to improve the description of the muon component, one based on the addition of particles with small momenta in the local center-of-mass frame of the high-energy hadronic interactions in the shower, the other on the addition of the so-called dark photons to the electromagnetic part of the shower. While we find the latter having no observable consequences, the former improves the agreement between observed and predicted amounts of muons both for the DELPHI cosmic ray data and for the measurements by the Pierre Auger Observatory. We also describe the FRAM telescope, a device used to monitor the atmosphere at the Pierre Auger Observatory, and its applications to the search for anomalous shower profiles and to the measurement of the aerosol content of the atmosphere, which is crucial for the analysis of data obtained by fluorescence detectors. 1

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No description available.

<p>Active Galactic Nuclei (AGNs) are accreting supermassive black holes at the center of galaxies, known for rich spectral features and multi-time scale variability in their electromagnetic emission. The origin of the variability in AGN light curves can be either intrinsic, meaning related processes that take place inside the AGN system, or extrinsic, i.e., from the propagation of light towards Earth. In this dissertation, I present my work focusing on AGN variability. The first two works focus on the variability of blazars, a subclass of AGN with their relativistic jets beaming towards the observer. The first work combines 3D relativistic magnetohydrodynamics (RMHD) simulations with radiation transfer and shows the kink instability within the blazar jet can cause quasi-periodic radiation signatures within a typical period of time scales from weeks to months. The second work combines 2D Particle-in-Cell (PIC) simulations with radiation transfer and shows that isolated and merging plasmoids due to magnetic reconnection in a blazar environment could produce rich radiation and polarization signatures. The last work explores an extrinsic origin for AGN variability: a scenario in which interstellar medium (ISM) within our galaxy can refract light coming from AGNs. It suggests that plasma structures in ISM with an axisymmetric geometry can account for extreme scattering events (ESEs) in AGN observations. Future research directions include studies of the kink instability in jets that propagate in different environments and simulations of magnetic reconnection in 3D which may reveal additional particle acceleration mechanisms, which may play important role in the resulting radiation and polarization signatures. </p>

<p dir="ltr">Understanding the acceleration of particles responsible for high-energy non-thermal phenomena in astrophysical jets is a ubiquitous pursuit. A possible culprit for non-thermal particle acceleration is turbulence. Specifically in this thesis, I investigate highly magne- tized or relativistic turbulence, where the magnetic energy to enthalpy ratio of the plasma is much greater than one, as a possible high-energy accelerator inside relativistic jets. I do this through three distinct projects. </p><p dir="ltr">My first project [1] (discussed in Section 3) was built upon a recent study of relativistic turbulence from [2], which found that a non-thermal particle equilibrium can be achieved when a plasma is heated via turbulence but allowed to cool radiatively. I extrapolated these results from PIC (Particle-in-Cell) simulations to larger scales and magnetizations, allowing me to encode key microphysical results of PIC simulations into a Fokker-Planck formalism. Combining these results with a single zone model for a blazar jet, I successfully define the underlying particle distribution with the global parameters of the emission region. To test this model, I fit data from 12 sources and successfully constrain key blazar parameters such as magnetization, bulk Lorentz factor, emission region size, and distance from the central engine. </p><p dir="ltr">My second project covers the development and testing of the open-source toolkit Tleco. This code base was used to evolve the Fokker-Planck equation and solve the resultant emission in my first project. Tleco offers efficient algorithms for evolving particle distributions and solving the resultant emission. It is meant to be user-friendly and easily customizable. </p><p dir="ltr">My third project attempts to enhance our understanding of coherent structures in relativistic turbulence. I employ intermittency analysis to establish a link between statistical fluctuations within the plasma and regions of high-energy dissipation. To achieve this, we used first-principle turbulent PIC simulations across a range of magnetizations and fluctuating magnetic field values. By utilizing the statistical fluctuations to determine the fractal dimension of the structures, I then examine their filling fraction and its dependence on magnetization and the fluctuating magnetic field.</p>

Until recently, numerical modulation models for the solar modulation of cosmic rays have been based primarily on finite difference approaches; however, models based on the solution of an appropriate set of stochastic differential equations have become increasingly popular. This study utilises such a spatially three-dimensional and time-stationary model, based on that of Strauss et al. (2011b). The remarkable numerical stability and powerful illustrative capabilities of this model are utilised extensively and in a distinctly comparative fashion to enable new insights into the processes of modulation. The model is refined to provide for both the Smith-Bieber (Smith and Bieber, 1991) and Jokipii-Kota (Jokipii and Kota, 1989) modifcations to the Parker heliospheric magnetic field (Parker, 1958) and the implications for modulation are investigated. During this investigation it is conclusively illustrated that the Parker field is most conducive to drift dominated modulation, while the Jokipii-Kota and Smith-Bieber modifcations are seen to induce successively larger contributions from diffusive processes. A further refinement to the model is the incorporation of a different profile for the heliospheric current sheet. This profile is defined by its latitudinal extent given by Kota and Jokipii (1983), as opposed to the profile given by Jokipii and Thomas (1981). An extensive investigation into current sheet related matters is launched, illustrating the difference between these current sheet geometries, the associated drift velocity fields and the effect on modulation. At high levels of solar activity, such that the current sheet enters deep enough into the polar regions, the profile of Kota and Jokipii (1983) is found to significantly reduce the effective inward (outward) drifts of positively (negatively) charged particles during A > 0 polarity cycles. The analogous effect is true for A < 0 polarity cycles and the overall effect is of such an extent that the A > 0 and A < 0 solutions are found to coincide at the highest levels of solar activity to form a closed loop. This is a result that has never before been achieved without having to scale down the drift coefficient to zero at solar maximum, as was done by e.g. Ndiitwani et al. (2005). Furthermore, it is found that the drift velocity fields associated with these two current sheet profiles lead to significant differences in modulation even at such low levels of solar activity where no difference in the geometries of these profiles are yet in evidence. The model is finally applied to reproduce four observed galactic proton spectra, selected from PAMELA measurements (Adriani et al., 2013) during the atypical solar minimum of 2006 to 2009; a new proton local interstellar spectrum was employed. The results are found to be in accordance with that found by other authors and in particular Vos (2011), i.e. the diffusion was required to consistently increase from 2006 to 2009 and, in addition, the rigidity dependence below ~ 3 GV was required to change over this time so that the spectra became increasingly softer. / MSc (Space Physics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Until recently, numerical modulation models for the solar modulation of cosmic rays have been based primarily on finite difference approaches; however, models based on the solution of an appropriate set of stochastic differential equations have become increasingly popular. This study utilises such a spatially three-dimensional and time-stationary model, based on that of Strauss et al. (2011b). The remarkable numerical stability and powerful illustrative capabilities of this model are utilised extensively and in a distinctly comparative fashion to enable new insights into the processes of modulation. The model is refined to provide for both the Smith-Bieber (Smith and Bieber, 1991) and Jokipii-Kota (Jokipii and Kota, 1989) modifcations to the Parker heliospheric magnetic field (Parker, 1958) and the implications for modulation are investigated. During this investigation it is conclusively illustrated that the Parker field is most conducive to drift dominated modulation, while the Jokipii-Kota and Smith-Bieber modifcations are seen to induce successively larger contributions from diffusive processes. A further refinement to the model is the incorporation of a different profile for the heliospheric current sheet. This profile is defined by its latitudinal extent given by Kota and Jokipii (1983), as opposed to the profile given by Jokipii and Thomas (1981). An extensive investigation into current sheet related matters is launched, illustrating the difference between these current sheet geometries, the associated drift velocity fields and the effect on modulation. At high levels of solar activity, such that the current sheet enters deep enough into the polar regions, the profile of Kota and Jokipii (1983) is found to significantly reduce the effective inward (outward) drifts of positively (negatively) charged particles during A > 0 polarity cycles. The analogous effect is true for A < 0 polarity cycles and the overall effect is of such an extent that the A > 0 and A < 0 solutions are found to coincide at the highest levels of solar activity to form a closed loop. This is a result that has never before been achieved without having to scale down the drift coefficient to zero at solar maximum, as was done by e.g. Ndiitwani et al. (2005). Furthermore, it is found that the drift velocity fields associated with these two current sheet profiles lead to significant differences in modulation even at such low levels of solar activity where no difference in the geometries of these profiles are yet in evidence. The model is finally applied to reproduce four observed galactic proton spectra, selected from PAMELA measurements (Adriani et al., 2013) during the atypical solar minimum of 2006 to 2009; a new proton local interstellar spectrum was employed. The results are found to be in accordance with that found by other authors and in particular Vos (2011), i.e. the diffusion was required to consistently increase from 2006 to 2009 and, in addition, the rigidity dependence below ~ 3 GV was required to change over this time so that the spectra became increasingly softer. / MSc (Space Physics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

<p>A search for a diffuse flux of cosmic neutrinos with energies in excess of 10¹⁴ eV was performed using two years of AMANDA-II data, collected in 2003 and 2004. A 20% evenly distributed sub-sample of experimental data was used to verify the detector description and the analysis cuts. A very good agreement between this 20% sample and the background simulations was observed. The analysis was optimised for discovery, to a relatively low price in limit setting power. The background estimate for the livetime of the examined 80% sample is 0.035 ± 68% events with an additional 41% systematical uncertainty.</p><p>The total neutrino flux needed for a 5σ discovery to be made with 50% probability was estimated to 3.4 ∙ 10^-7 <i>E</i>^-2 GeV s^-1 sr^-1 cm^-2 equally distributed over the three flavours, taking statistical and systematic uncertainties in the background expectation and the signal efficiency into account. No experimental events survived the final discriminator cut. Hence, no ultra-high energy neutrino candidates were found in the examined sample. A 90% upper limit is placed on the total ultra-high energy neutrino flux at 2.8 ∙ 10^-7 <i>E</i>^-2 GeV s^-1 sr^-1cm^-2, taking both systematical and statistical uncertainties into account. The energy range in which 90% of the simulated <i>E</i>^-2signal is contained is 2.94 ∙ 10¹⁴ eV to 1.54 ∙ 10¹⁸eV (central interval), assuming an equal distribution over the neutrino flavours at the Earth. The final acceptance is distributed as 48% electron neutrinos, 27% muon neutrinos, and 25% tau neutrinos.</p><p>A set of models for the production of neutrinos in active galactic nuclei that predict spectra deviating from <i>E</i>^-2 was excluded.</p>

Nous avons développé une méthode pour analyse isotopique de Yb et Er, deux terres rares aux propriétés chimiques identiques et aux températures de condensation différentes, avec comme objectifs (1) de déterminer la variabilité isotopique de ces éléments dans les processus pétrologiques terrestres, et (2) de comparer leurs compositions isotopiques dans les chondrites, la Terre et la Lune afin de déterminer le rôle potentiel de la condensation à haute température à partir de vapeurs qui a suivi l’impact géant à l’origine de la formation de la Lune. Les résultats obtenus montrent une plus grande variabilité des fractionnements isotopiques de Yb par rapport à ceux d’Er. Deux effets contribuent à cette différence : un effet oxydo-réducteur et un effet de température. La corrélation positive obtenue entre la composition isotopique en Yb, et le rapport La/Yb dans les échantillons terrestres, peut être interprétée par la présence d’une faible fraction d’ Yb(2+), Yb étant majoritairement présent sous la forme Yb(3+). La kimberlite (liquide magmatique formé par un faible taux de fusion partielle) est enrichie en isotopes lourds et les grenats, résidus de fusion partielle, sont isotopiquement légers, tandis que les basaltes de ride ou d’îles ont des compositions isotopiques intermédiaires.La composition isotopique en Yb de la Lune est enrichie en isotopes légers par rapport à celle de la Terre et des chondrites. Dans le disque proto-lunaire, les frictions entre les phases fondues et gazeuses favorisent la migration des premiers condensats très réfractaires et enrichis en isotopes lourds vers la Terre, et celle de la vapeur enrichie en isotopes légers, vers l’extérieur, au-delà de la limite de Roche à partir de laquelle la Lune s’accrète. Ceci est un nouvel argument en faveur de la condensation de la Lune à partir de vapeur générée par un impact géant. La mesure de la composition isotopique d’Er dans les échantillons lunaires reflète pour la première fois la capture par 167Er des neutrons produits par interaction du rayonnement cosmique galactique avec la surface lunaire. L’apport de Er aux systèmes communément utilisés pour déterminer le spectre d’énergie des neutrons d’un matériau peut permettre de couvrir une gamme énergétique plus large et de disposer ainsi d’un proxy plus complet pour l’étude des histoires des irradiations des matériaux planétaires. / Er and Yb are two refractory rare-earth elements that have overall similar crystallochemical properties but differ in their temperatures of condensation from the nebular gas. We developed an analytical protocol for the measurement of Er and Yb isotope compositions 1) to establish their isotopic variability in terrestrial magmatic processes 2) to compare their isotopic composition in chondrites, Earth and Moon in order to study fractionation during the high temperature condensation of vapor formed by the giant impact that generated the Moon. The range of mass-dependent isotope fractionation obtained is larger for Yb than Er isotopes. Two effects contribute to the difference between Er and Yb : a redox effect and a temperature effect.First, for terrestrial rocks, the presence of a small fraction of Yb(2+) together with the most common Yb(3+) is inferred from the positive corre- lation between δYb and the La/Yb ratio. Yb(3+) fractionates favorably into tighter bonds and, at the same time, is much more compatible than Yb(2+). Small-degree melts (kimberlite) tend to be enriched in the heavy Yb isotopes, whereas the opposite is true for residual garnets. Second, the stronger volatility of Yb with respect to Er is demonstrated by the apparent deficit of heavy Yb isotopes in the Moon with respect to the Earth, chondrites, and eucrites. Separation of vapor from melt and of heavy from light isotopes is first expected during the adiabatic expansion of the initial vapor plume. Subsequently, friction between melt and gas tends to further enrich the Moon feeding zone in silicate vapor to compensate the inward migration of melt out of the pre-lunar disk. The lighter isotope composition of Yb in lunar samples provides new evidence that the Moon formed by condensation of silicate vapor in the aftermath of the giant lunar impact.Erbium isotope ratios in lunar samples reflect for the first time the capture by 167Er of secondary neutrons produced by interactions of galactic cosmic rays with the lunar surface. The cross section of 167Er for neutron capture being particularly strong and its first resonance standing out at energies poorly covered by other nuclides, 167Er anomalies may help refine the knowledge of the neutron energy spectrum on the Moon and other planetary bodies.