Orientador: José Augusto Chinellato / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Física Gleb Wataghin / Made available in DSpace on 2018-09-03T07:30:39Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Perassa_EderArnedo_D.pdf: 3556275 bytes, checksum: c4e6180df4a4a5dcbfe476b7d331bee4 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017 / Resumo: Neste trabalho, estudamos os métodos de estatística bayesiana e máxima entropia na análise de dados em eventos de raios cósmicos. Inicialmente, fizemos um resumo sobre o desenvolvimento da física de raios cósmicos em que descrevemos alguns resultados teóricos e experimentais recentes. A seguir, apresentamos uma breve revisão do método bayesiano e o aplicamos na determinação da composição em massa dos primários em eventos de raios cósmicos. Além disso, introduzimos o método de máxima entropia e propomos um método de parametrização do perfil longitudinal de chuveiros atmosféricos extensos. Em todas as aplicações, foram mostrados os algoritmos desenvolvidos e os resultados obtidos a partir de dados de eventos simulados. Os resultados indicaram que tais métodos podem ser utilizados satisfatoriamente como ferramentas na análise de dados em eventos de raios cósmicos / Abstract: In this work, we study bayesian statistics and maximum entropy methods in cosmic ray events data analysis. At first, we summarized developments in cosmic rays physics, describing some recent theoretical and experimental results. We present briefly a review of bayesian method and apply it to the problem of determining mass composition primary cosmic ray events. Moreover, we introduce the maximum entropy method and propose a method for the parametrization of the longitudinal profile of extensive air showers. In all applications, the algorithms developed and the results obtained from simulated event data were shown. The results suggested that such methods can be satisfactorily used as tools in cosmic rays events data analysis / Doutorado / Física / Doutor em Ciências / 277612/2007 / CAPES

JEM-EUSO est un projet de télescope spatiale dédié à la détection des rayons cosmiques d'ultra-haute énergie (RCUHE) (d'énergie supérieure à 10/48 eV) par l'observation de l'émission de lumière ultra-violette produite par l'interaction entre li rayon cosmique et l'atmosphère terrestre. Dans le cadre de ma thèse, j'ai travaillé sur le premier démonstrateur du projet, EUSO-Balloon, une version réduite de l'instrument prévu pour JEM-EUSO portée par un ballon stratosphérique. J'ai participé à l'étalonnage de la surface focale du ballon, composée de 36 photo-multiplicateurs multi-anodes (MAPMT), ainsi qu'à l'intégration de l'électronique de lecture et l'assemblage et les tests de l'instrument complet. J'ai pris part à la campagne de vol qui s'est déroulée à Timmins, au Canada, pour un vol la nuit du 24 août 2014. Pendant le vol, l'instrument a pu observer le flux lumineux en ultra-violet émis et réfléchi par le sol, ainsi que des impulsions laser tirées à partir d'un hélicoptère volant sous l'instrument pendant une partie de la mission et simulant le signal émis par un RCUHE interagissant avec l'atmosphère terrestre. Après le succès du premier vol d'EUSO-Balloon, un second vol est prévu au printemps 2017. Ce vol est prévu pour durer plusieurs semaines, et a pour objectif principal l'observation de RCUHE. Pour préparer ce vol, et à la suite des retours de la première mission, j'ai participé à plusieurs campagnes de tests afin d'améliorer certains aspects technologiques de l'instrument. J'ai également mené des simulations afin d'estimer le nombre d'UHECR que l'instrument détectera pendant un vol de plusieurs semaines / JEM-EUSO is a future space UV telescope dedicated to the observation of Ultra-High Energy Cosmic Rays( UHECR), through 'the detection of the UV light emitted by the interaction between the UHECR and the Earth atmosphere. The work done during my PhD was focused on EUSO-Balloon, a smaller scale balloon borne prototype of JEM-EUSO with a complete detection chain and Fresnel optics. During my PhD, I took part in the calibration of the focal surface, made up of 36 mufti-anode photomultipliers as well as the integration and full scale tests of the read-out electronics and the whole instrument. I took part of the flight campaign in Timmins, Canada with a flight on the 24`11 of August 2014. During the flight, the instrument was able to observe the UV light emitted and reflected by the ground as well as laser pulses shot from an helicopter flying under the balloon during the first part of the flight to simulate UHECR signal as seen from the instrument. After the success of the first flight of EUSO-Balloon, a second flight o a several weeks is planned for spring 2017, with the goal of observing real UHECR events from above. I took part of several test campaigns to improve the performances of the instrument for the second flight. Finally, I mn a serie of simulations to estimate the number of events the instrument should be able to detect during a several-week flight

Le centre Galactique (GC) est une région très riche et complexe. Le taux de supernovae (SN) associé à la formation d'étoiles massives y est très élevée et devrait créer une injection continue de rayons cosmiques (CRs) dans le GC à travers les chocs qu'elles produisent. Cette région abrite également un trou noir supermassif (SMBH) de $4 \times 10^6 \, \rm{M_{\odot}}$, nommé Sgr A*. De nombreux arguments ont permis de montrer que le SMBH pouvait accélérer des particules à très haute énergie (VHE); son activité actuelle et passée pourrait donc également contribuer à la population de CRs. En 2006, la collaboration H.E.S.S. a révélé la présence d'une émission diffuse à VHE dans les 100 pc centraux de la Galaxie, très corrélée à la distribution de matière moléculaire répartie dans la zone moléculaire centrale (CMZ). Une partie importante de cette émission a donc très probablement une origine hadronique mais celle-ci reste toujours inconnue. Nous présentons une nouvelle analyse spectrale et morphologique détaillée de la région en utilisant 10 ans de prise de données de H.E.S.S. ainsi qu’une modélisation de l'émission $\gamma$ induite par les SNe. Nous étudions l'impact de la distribution temporelle et spatiale des SNe dans le CMZ sur la morphologie et le spectre de l'émission: nous construisons un model 3D d'injection de CRs à VHE et d'une propagation diffusive dans la région avec une distribution de gaz réaliste. La contribution des SNe ne peut pas être négligée. Nous montrons qu’un profil piqué de rayon $\gamma$ ainsi qu’un excès de CRs vers le GC peuvent être obtenus en utilisant une distribution spatiale réaliste de SNe prenant en compte les amas d'étoiles massives centraux. La morphologie de l'émission est très dépendante de l'énergie dans ce scénario. Le profil de densité de CRs peut également être reproduit avec une injection stationnaire unique au centre par Sgr A* mais cela implique alors une morphologie stable en énergie. L'utilisation d'une analyse 3D est donc nécessaire pour distinguer les modèles. Nous présentons les premiers résultats de cette analyse que nous avons développé dans la librairie Gammapy afin d'ajuster simultanément un spectre et une morphologie sur des données. Avec la prochaine génération d'instruments comme le Cherenkov Telescope Array, les observations de régions avec une morphologie complexe, avec une émission diffuse ou de multiples sources, vont devenir de plus en plus nombreuses. Elles nécessitent donc également le développement de cette technique. Nous détaillons les premières validations de cette méthode appliquée sur des sources ponctuelles avec un outil Monte Carlo. Pour l’émission diffuse, nous présentons le nouveau spectre obtenu en utilisant une méthode que nous avons développée pour l’extraction spectrale 1D classique. Nous réalisons par ailleurs une analyse morphologique dans différentes bandes en énergie indépendantes en utilisant de nouveaux modèles spatiaux. Pour l'instant, aucune variation significative n'est détectée mais des observations supplémentaires sont nécessaires ainsi qu'une vraie analyse 3D de la région du GC pour pouvoir donner une conclusion définitive. Les observations de CTA permettront de donner des réponses précises à ces questions. / The Galactic center (GC) is a very rich and complex astrophysical region. The high supernovae (SN) rate associated with the strong massive star formation should create a sustained cosmic rays (CR) injection in the GC via the shocks they produce. This region also harbors a Super-Massive Black Hole (SMBH) of $4 \times 10^6 \, \rm{M_{\odot}}$, named Sgr A*. Since it has been argued that the SMBH might also accelerate particles up to very high energies (VHE), its current and past activity could contribute to the CR population. In 2006, the H.E.S.S. collaboration revealed the presence of a VHE diffuse emission in the inner 100 pc of the Galaxy in close correlation with the molecular matter spread in the central molecular zone (CMZ). A major part of this emission is thus certainly of hadronic origin but it still remains mysterious. We report a new detailed spectral and morphological analysis of this region using 10 years of H.E.S.S. observations as well as a detailed modelling of the $\gamma$-ray emission induced by the SNe. We study the impact of the spatial and temporal distribution of SNe in the CMZ on the VHE emission morphology and spectrum: we built a 3D model of VHE CR injection and diffusive propagation with a realistic gas distribution. The contribution of SNe can not be neglected. We show that a peaked $\gamma$-ray profile and CR excess towards the GC, can be obtained using realistic SN spatial distribution taking into account the central massive star clusters. A strong dependence on the morphology of the emission with the energy is expected in this scenario. The CR density profile can also be reproduced by a unique stationary injection at the center by Sgr A* but it implies a stable morphology across the energy range. To distinguish the models, we need a 3D analysis. We present the first results of this analysis that we started to design in the software Gammapy to simultaneously fit a spectral and morphological model to the data. The observations of complex morphological regions with diffuse emission or multiple sources will become more and more numerous with the next generation instruments such as the Cherenkov Telescope Array. They will also require the development of this technique. We detail the first validations of this method on point sources using a Monte Carlo tool. For the ridge emission, we report the new spectrum using a method that we developed for the classical spectral fitting necessary for faint emission. By using new spatial templates to describe the complexity of the diffuse emission, we perform a morphological analysis in different energy bands independently. No significant variation is found but more observations are needed to give a conclusive statement as well as a real 3D analysis in the GC region. The observations of CTA will allow to give precise answers to these questions.

Cosmic rays are at the foundation of astroparticle physics and the extensive air showers (EAS) is one indirect way to detect them. Air showers, however, have been used to infer information not just of cosmic rays particles, but also to localize gamma rays sources. The shower maximum of an EAS, defined as the position at the atmosphere where the maximum quantity of charged particles is reached, is an observable of air showers that can permit to infer the mass composition of cosmic rays. For this reason, it is important to propose methods to measure it. Several methods to determine the shower maximum have been implemented in the last decades with the development of different kinds of telescopes. This work discusses the possibility of determining the maximum of air showers using imaging atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes (IACT). The Cherenkov telescopes can detect the Cherenkov radiation produced by the interaction of charged particles with the atmosphere. Those Cherenkov photons are projected back into the plane containing the longitudinal development of the air shower. Each plane is saved as a 2D histogram with the longitudinal and lateral development in the vertical and horizontal axis, respectively. A detailed analysis of each 2D histogram is presented and used to obtain the depth of the maximum of the Cherenkov profile. The main effect seen is a decrease in the shower maximum of Cherenkov photons as a function of the telescope position from the shower axis to 150 m. After 150m from the shower axis, there is a constant behavior that is correlated to the real depth of the maximum of an EAS. Based on this constant behavior after 150 m, the shower maximum is reconstructed and it is shown the resolution of the method as a function of the energy, which is around 55 g/cm2 considering just one telescope, and 15 g/cm2 for the best case considering zenith angle of 20 degrees. Moreover, the method is tested with some simulations took from Very Energetic Radiation Imaging Telescope Array System (VERITAS) experiment to compare with the results of our simulations. The resolution of the reconstruction of the shower maximum for proton and iron showers was also done which ranges around 80 g/cm2 for proton and around 30 g/cm2 for iron in the case of 20° of zenith angle. / Os raios cósmicos estão na base da física das astropartículas e os chuveiros atmosféricos extensos (EAS pela sigla em inglês) são uma maneira indireta de detectá-los. Os chuveiros atmosféricos, no entanto, têm sido usados para inferir informações não apenas sobre partículas de raios cósmicos, mas também para localizar fontes de raios gama. A profundidade de máximo num EAS, definido como a profundidade atmosférica onde a quantidade máxima de partículas carregadas é atingida, é um observável de EAS que permite inferir a composição de massa dos raios cósmicos. Por esse motivo, é importante propor métodos para medí-lo. Vários métodos para determinar a profundidade de máximo foram implementados nas últimas décadas com o desenvolvimento de diferentes tipos de telescópios. Este trabalho discute a possibilidade de determinar a profundidade de máximo de chuveiros atmosféricos utilizando os telescópios atmosféricos Cherenkov (IACT). Os telescópios Cherenkov podem detectar a radiação Cherenkov produzida pela interação de partículas carregadas com a atmosfera. Esses fótons Cherenkov são projetados de volta ao plano que contém o desenvolvimento longitudinal do chuveiro. Cada plano é salvo num histograma 2D com o desenvolvimento longitudinal e lateral no eixo vertical e horizontal, respectivamente. Uma análise detalhada de cada histograma 2D é apresentada e usada para obter a profundidade máxima do perfil de emissão de luz Cherenkov. O principal efeito visto é uma diminuição na profundidade de máximo dos fótons Cherenkov do chuveiro como função da posição do telescópio a partir do eixo do chuveiro até 150 m. A partir de 150 m do eixo do chuveiro, há um comportamento constante que está correlacionado com a profundidade real de máximo do EAS. Com base nesse comportamento constante após 150 m, o máximo do chuveiro é reconstruído e é mostrada a resolução do método em função da energia, que é cerca de 55 g/cm2 considerando apenas um telescópio, e 15 g/cm2 para o melhor caso, considerando o ângulo zenital de 20 graus. Além disso, o método é testado com algumas simulações cedidas pelo experimento VERITAS (Very Energetic Radiation Imaging Telescope Array System, pela sigla em inglês) para comparar com os resultados de nossas simulações. Também foi feita a resolução da reconstrução da profundidade de máximo para chuveiros atmosféricos de prótons e ferro, que varia em torno de 80 g/cm2 para prótons e em torno de 30 g/cm2 para ferro no caso chuveiros inclinados a um ângulo de 20°.

Diese Arbeit beschreibt die Suche nach hochenergetischen kosmischen Neutrinos mit dem AMANDA-B10 Detektor. Das Antarctic Muon and Neutrinos Detection Array - AMANDA - ist ein Experiment zum Nachweis hochenergetischer Neutrinos. Es besteht aus einem Gitter optischer Detektoren, die in den antarktischen Gletscher eingeschmolzen wurden. Hochenergetische Myonneutrinos können anhand aufwärts laufender Myonspuren identifiziert werden. Nur Neutrinos reagieren ausschließlich durch die schwache Wechselwirkung, was sie zur einzigen Teilchensorte macht, die die ganze Erde durchlaufen kann. Aufwärtslaufende Spuren sind daher eine klare Signatur für neutrinoinduzierte Ereignisse. Die Richtung der Myonen kann anhand des abgestrahlten Cherenkovlichtes rekonstruiert werden. Für Neutrinoenergien oberhalb einiger hundert GeV behält das Myon die Richtung des Neutrinos im wesentlichen bei. Aus der Richtung des Myons kann daher auf die Richtung des Neutrinos geschlossen werden. Das erlaubt die Identifikation von Quellen. Die häufigste Klasse von Untergrundereignissen sind abwärtslaufende Spuren von Myonen, die durch kosmische Strahlen in der Erdatmosphäre erzeugt werden. Damit ist der wichtigste Selektionsparameter der rekonstruierte Zenithwinkel. Ein weitere Klasse von Untergrundereignissen für die Beobachtung kosmische Neutrinos sind aufwärtslaufende Myonspuren von sogenannten atmosphärischen Neutrinos. Das sind Neutrinos, die von der kosmischen Strahlung in der Atmosphäre der Nordhalbkugel erzeugt werden, die Erde durchlaufen und als aufwärtslaufende Spuren die gleiche Signatur haben wie kosmische Neutrinos. Im Falle von Punktquellen ist die Identifikation kosmischer Neutrinos über die Häufung von Neutrinos aus einer bestimmten Richtung möglich. Eine weitere Möglichkeit, kosmische Neutrinos von atmosphärischen Neutrinos zu unterscheiden, ist die Energieverteilung: atmosphärische Neutrinos haben ein Energiespektrum mit einem spektralen Index von ungefähr -3.7, während für kosmische Neutrinos ein Spektrum mit einem spektralen Index von -2 erwartet wird. Die Signatur kosmischer Neutrinos ist daher ein Überschuß von hochenergetischen Ereignissen. Zur Selektion dieser Ereignisse ist ein Energieparameter notwendig. Das Thema dieser Arbeit ist die Suche nach einem diffusen Fluß hochenergetischer kosmischer Neutrinos, als die Überlagerung der Flüsse von vielen, für sich genommen nicht nachweisbaren Quellen. Zum Nachweis der Funktionsfähigkeit des Detektors wurde zuerst die Separation von atmosphärischen Neutrinos mitentwickelt. Die erhaltenen Kandidaten wurden auf einen Überschuß hochenergetischer Neutrinos untersucht. Dazu wurde die Methode zur Energierekonstruktion, die für den Baikal-Detektor entwickelt wurde, an die optischen Eigenschaften von Eis angepaßt. Eine Analyse der Fehlerbeiträge ergab jedoch, daß stochastische Fluktuationen der Energie- und damit Lichtdeposition die Energieauflösung begrenzen. Die Suche nach alternativen energieabhängigen Selektionsparametern ergab die Anzahl der getroffen Kanäle als effektiven Selektionsparameter für hochenergetische Ereignisse. Mit diesem Parameter konnte die Sensitivität des Detektors für hochenergetische Ereignisse abgeschätzt werden. Eine detaillierte Analyse ergab jedoch systematische Abweichungen zwischen Daten und Monte Carlo. Als Konsequenz wurde ein separater Filter für hochenergetische Ereignisse entwickelt. Mit Separationsschnitten auf nur fünf Parameter konnten die Daten auf weniger als ein Prozent reduziert werden. Die abschließenden Schnitte wurden mit einem Optimierungsprogramm entwickelt. Zur Optimierung der Sensitivität wurde eine Vielfalt von Parametern verglichen. Ein Satz besonders hochenergetischer Ereignisse konnte selektiert werden. Die Zahl und Verteilung der Ereignisse ist konsistent mit der Erwartung für atmosphärische Neutrinoereignisse. Ein Überschuß von Ereignissen hoher Energie wurde nicht beobachtet. Nach einem letzten Schnitt auf die Anzahl der getroffenen Kanäle als Energieparameter ließ sich daher eine obere Grenze für den Fluß hochenergetischer kosmischer Neutrinos ableiten. Unter der generischen Annahme eines E_nu^-2-Spektrums ergibt sich eine Grenze für Energien zwischen 5 * 10^3 GeV und 1 * 10^6 GeV von E^2 * (d Phi_(nu + nubar) / dE_nu )_(90% C.L.) / High energy neutrinos are a possible probe for cosmic acceleration mechanisms. Using data taken with the AMANDA-B10 detector in 1997 an upper limit of E^2 (d Phi / dE) < 1.0 * 10^-6 cm^-2 s^-1 sr^-1 GeV on the flux of cosmic neutrinos with energies between 5 TeV and 1 PeV was obtained.

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN), together with the analyses of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) anisotropies, confirm what our day to day experience of life attests : antimatter is far less present than matter in the Universe. In addition, these observables also permit to evaluate that there exists about one proton for every 10^{10} photons present in the Universe. This is in contradiction with expectations coming from the standard hot big bang, where no distinction between matter and antimatter is made, and where subsequent annihilations would lead to equal matter and antimatter contents, at a level 10^{−10} smaller than the observed one. The Standard Model of fundamental interactions fails to explain this result, leading us to search for ‘Beyond the Standard Model’ physics. Among the possible mechanism which could be responsible for the creation of such a matter asymmetry, leptogenesis is particularly attractive because it only relies on the same ingredients previously introduced to generate neutrino masses. Unfortunatelly, this elegant proposal suffers from a major difficulty : it resists to any tentative of being probed by our low energy observables. In this thesis, we tackle the problem the other way around and propose a way to falsify this mechanism. Considering the type-I leptogenesis mechanism, i.e. a mechanism based on the asymmetric decay of right-handed neutrinos, in a left-right symmetric framework, we show that the observation of a right-handed gauge boson W_R at future colliders would rule out any possibility for such mechanism to be responsible of the matter asymmetry present in our Universe. Another intriguing question that analyses of the anisotropies of the CMB confirmed is the presence of a non-baryonic component of matter in our Universe, i.e. the dark matter. As hinted by observations of galactic rotation curves, it should copiously be present in our galactic halo, but is notoriously difficult to detect directly. We can take advantage on the fact that antimatter almost disappeared from our surroundings to detect the contamination of cosmic rays from standard sources the annihilation products of dark matter would produce. The second subject tackled in this work is the study of the imprints the Inert Doublet Modem (IDM) could leave in (charged) cosmic rays, namely positrons, antprotons and antideuterons. This model, first proposed to allow the Bout-Englert-Higgs particle to evade the Electroweak Precision Test (EWPT) measurements, introduces an additional scalar doublet which is inert in the sense that it does not couple directly to fermions. This latter property brings an additional virtue to this additional doublet : since it interacts weakly with particles, it can play the role of dark matter. This study will be done in the light of the data recently released by the PAMELA, ATIC and Fermi-GLAST collaborations, which reported e^± excesses in two different energy ranges.

A search for a diffuse flux of cosmic neutrinos with energies in excess of 1014 eV was performed using two years of AMANDA-II data, collected in 2003 and 2004. A 20% evenly distributed sub-sample of experimental data was used to verify the detector description and the analysis cuts. A very good agreement between this 20% sample and the background simulations was observed. The analysis was optimised for discovery, to a relatively low price in limit setting power. The background estimate for the livetime of the examined 80% sample is 0.035 ± 68% events with an additional 41% systematical uncertainty. The total neutrino flux needed for a 5σ discovery to be made with 50% probability was estimated to 3.4 ∙ 10-7 E-2 GeV s-1 sr-1 cm-2 equally distributed over the three flavours, taking statistical and systematic uncertainties in the background expectation and the signal efficiency into account. No experimental events survived the final discriminator cut. Hence, no ultra-high energy neutrino candidates were found in the examined sample. A 90% upper limit is placed on the total ultra-high energy neutrino flux at 2.8 ∙ 10-7 E-2 GeV s-1 sr-1 cm-2, taking both systematical and statistical uncertainties into account. The energy range in which 90% of the simulated E-2 signal is contained is 2.94 ∙ 1014 eV to 1.54 ∙ 1018 eV (central interval), assuming an equal distribution over the neutrino flavours at the Earth. The final acceptance is distributed as 48% electron neutrinos, 27% muon neutrinos, and 25% tau neutrinos. A set of models for the production of neutrinos in active galactic nuclei that predict spectra deviating from E-2 was excluded.

The solar minimum of 2009 has been identified as an exceptional event with regard to cosmic ray (CR)modulation, since conditions in the heliosphere have reached unprecedented quiet levels. This unique minimum has been observed by the Earth–orbiting satellite, PAMELA, launched in June, 2006, from which vast sets of accurate proton and electron preliminary observations have been made available. These simultaneous measurements from PAMELA provide the ideal opportunity to conduct an in–depth study of CR modulation, in particular charge–sign dependent modulation. In utilizing this opportunity, a three–dimensional, steady–state modulation model was used to reproduce a selection of consecutive PAMELA proton and electron spectra from 2006 to 2009. Thiswas done by assuming full drifts and simplified diffusion coefficients, where the rigidity dependence and absolute value of themean free paths for protons and electrons were sequentially adjusted below 3 GV and 300 MV, respectively. Care has been taken in calculating yearly–averaged current–sheet tilt angle and magnetic field values that correspond to the PAMELA spectra. Following this study where the numerical model was used to investigate the individual effects resulting from changes in the tilt angle, diffusion coefficients, and global drifts, it was found that all these modulation processes played significant roles in contributing to the total increase in CR intensities from 2006 to 2009, as was observed by PAMELA. Furthermore, the effect that drifts has on oppositely charged particles was also evident from the difference between the peak–shaped time profiles of protons and the flatter time profiles of electrons, as is expected for an A < 0 polarity cycle. Since protons, which drift into the heliosphere along the heliospheric current–sheet, haven’t yet reached maximum intensity levels by 2008, their intensities increased notably more than electrons toward the end of 2009. The time and energy dependence of the electron to proton ratios were also studied in order to further illustrate and quantify the effect of drifts during this remarkable solar minimum period. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Physics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

The solar minimum of 2009 has been identified as an exceptional event with regard to cosmic ray (CR)modulation, since conditions in the heliosphere have reached unprecedented quiet levels. This unique minimum has been observed by the Earth–orbiting satellite, PAMELA, launched in June, 2006, from which vast sets of accurate proton and electron preliminary observations have been made available. These simultaneous measurements from PAMELA provide the ideal opportunity to conduct an in–depth study of CR modulation, in particular charge–sign dependent modulation. In utilizing this opportunity, a three–dimensional, steady–state modulation model was used to reproduce a selection of consecutive PAMELA proton and electron spectra from 2006 to 2009. Thiswas done by assuming full drifts and simplified diffusion coefficients, where the rigidity dependence and absolute value of themean free paths for protons and electrons were sequentially adjusted below 3 GV and 300 MV, respectively. Care has been taken in calculating yearly–averaged current–sheet tilt angle and magnetic field values that correspond to the PAMELA spectra. Following this study where the numerical model was used to investigate the individual effects resulting from changes in the tilt angle, diffusion coefficients, and global drifts, it was found that all these modulation processes played significant roles in contributing to the total increase in CR intensities from 2006 to 2009, as was observed by PAMELA. Furthermore, the effect that drifts has on oppositely charged particles was also evident from the difference between the peak–shaped time profiles of protons and the flatter time profiles of electrons, as is expected for an A < 0 polarity cycle. Since protons, which drift into the heliosphere along the heliospheric current–sheet, haven’t yet reached maximum intensity levels by 2008, their intensities increased notably more than electrons toward the end of 2009. The time and energy dependence of the electron to proton ratios were also studied in order to further illustrate and quantify the effect of drifts during this remarkable solar minimum period. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Physics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012.

Beryllium-7 is a cosmogenic radionuclide produced in the atmosphere through the spallation of nitrogen and oxygen nuclei by cosmic-ray-produced neutrons and protons. It is carried in the atmosphere attached to aerosols and is deposited on land and ocean surfaces by wet and dry deposition processes. Beryllium-7 decays by electron capture to lithium-7 and has a half-life of approximately 53 days. It is a potentially useful radionuclide for studying different natural processes. This thesis presents a collection of scientific papers on the occurrence of beryllium-7 in the natural environment, particularly in the Southeast Queensland region of Australia. It shows the results of experimental measurements and discusses their implications. Overall, this thesis contributes to advancing our understanding of the distribution and behaviour of beryllium-7 in the natural environment and provides a foundation for the development of nuclear techniques for the evaluation of environmental problems.