Yes / Low cost carriers (budget airlines) have a significant share of the air travel market, but little research has been done to understand the distributional effect of their operation on key tourism indicators such as length of stay and expenditure. Using data on European visitors to the United Kingdom we demonstrate how counterfactual decompositions can inform us of the true impact of mode of travel. Passengers on low cost carriers tend to spend less, particularly at the upper end of the distribution. Budget airline users typically stay longer, though differences in characteristics of observed groups are important to this result. Counterfactual techniques provide additional valuable insights not obtained from conventional econometric models used in the literature. Illustrating an application of the methodology to policy we demonstrate that enabling respondents to extend their stay generates the greatest additional expenditure at the lower end of the distribution. We also show nationality is a significant characteristic, with important impacts across the expenditure distribution.

This dissertation assesses the causes and consequences of gender wage discrimination in Ethiopia. In the first chapter, we estimate the distribution of Gender Wage Discrimination in the Ethiopian urban labor market using quantile counterfactual decompositions. The literature generally finds a u-shaped distribution suggesting the presence of both a sticky floor effect and a glass ceiling effect. Using repeated cross-section data for the years 2006, 2010 and 2014, we find a strong evidence of a sticky floor effect but not a glass ceiling effect in the Ethiopian urban labor market. Our paper also provides evidence that there is substantial difference in the extent of discrimination between working in private and public jobs. Public jobs are less discriminatory for women relative to the private jobs. In the second chapter, we investigate the determinants of the gender wage gap in the Ethiopian manufacturing sector between the years 1996 and 2010 with a particular focus on the impact of the export orientation. This is done both at the intensive and extensive margin. Accordingly, we find that more export orientation helps reduce the firm level gender wage gap regardless of whether it is at the intensive or extensive margin. Our results also provide evidence on the presence of sectoral variation on the association between export orientation and gender wage gap. Export orientation doesn’t have a significant impact on the gender wage gap in the construction and housing goods sector. Segmenting the data in to two we also find that the impact of export orientation in reducing gender wage gap is much stronger for the period 2003-2010 relative to the 1996-2002 period. Finally, we estimate the impact of gender earnings differentials on the technical efficiency of the firm in the Ethiopian manufacturing sector for the period 1996 through 2010. We adopt a two-step time-variant panel stochastic frontier model using a translog production function. Our results provide fresh evidence on the existence of a significant negative association between gender wage gap and predicted technical efficiencies of firms. Further subdividing the manufacturing sector into four different industries, we find that the negative association is consistent in most industries. Our results are also robust to the inclusion of other firm level explanatory variables at the sectoral level.

Este trabalho busca trazer robustez aos resultados observados em estudos comparativos entre escolas públicas e privadas do Brasil, que indicam uma maior capacidade da rede particular de ensino em gerar qualidade educacional. Para isso, uma abordagem quantílica, baseada na seleção em observadas, foi realizada. Vale ressaltar que, ao contrário de outras abordagens, a realizada nesta dissertação tem inferência assintótica. A base de dados utilizada foi a do SAEB de 2005, para as provas de matemática de oitava série. Novamente foi evidenciada uma superioridade das escolas privadas, mesmo controlando para diversas covariadas de alunos, professores e escolas. Este fato fortalece a possibilidade de implantação de políticas de cupons para escolas particulares, apesar de haver a necessidade de estudos adicionais sobre o assunto. Em relação às covariadas que reduziriam a distância entre as distribuições de notas de alunos de escolas públicas e privadas, constatouse que fatores determinantes do grupo de alunos na escola e na sala (peer group effects) seriam os mais importantes. Isso corrobora com resultados de outros trabalhos que evidenciam a importância desses fatores para explicar a maior efetividade das escolas privadas em relação às escolas públicas. / This paper aims at bringing strength to the results observed in other studies that point out a larger ability of the private school network to generate quality education in Brazil. To achieve that result, this study applies a quantile approach based on the selection on observable variables. Note that unlike other approaches , the one applied in this dissertation has asymptotic inference. The data base used in this study was that of SAEB 2005 for math tests in the 8th grade. As in other studies, here again the superiority of the private schools was made evident, even though various students\', teachers\' and schools\' covariates are controlled. This result strengthens the possibility of a policy of quotas for private schools, although additional studies on the subject are necessary. In relation to the variables that would reduce the distance between the grades distributions of students on public and private schools, peer group effects were observed to be the more important ones. These results are similar to the ones observed in other studies that point out the importance of the peer group effects to explain the higher effectiveness of the private schools in comparison to the public schools.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de NÃvel Superior / Analyzing the income differentials between Brazilian workersâ occupations is the focus of this paper. Due to the wide diversity of occupations cataloged by the IBGE (around 800), and to allow statistical treatment in econometric modeling, it was applied the theoretical schema of Erickson, Goldthorpe and Portocarrero (1979) and Goldthorpe, Llewellyn and Payne (1987) to reduce them in only seven. The methodological approach is based on mincerian quantile equations to be estimated in various strata of the workersâ income distribution, on which a breakdown is made to check the gap between the individualsâearnings with distinct inherent attributes and between those living in more and less developed regions. The estimation results confirm the importance of breakdown analysis for occupational strata as well as for quantiles, since the effects of explanatory variables are distinct along the earningsâ distribution and vary among occupations. Regarding the gaps in this distribution, there is a glass ceiling effect in some occupations, that is, the gap is greater at the top of distribution. However, in most cases occurs a sticky floor effect, the gap is greater at the bottom of distribution. Moreover, contrary to the gap in gender, which are due only to the compensation characteristics of individuals, which is understood as discrimination, income differentials between regions and races are also due to the different characteristics of workers. / Analisar os diferenciais de rendimentos entre as ocupaÃÃes dos trabalhadores brasileiros à o foco central deste trabalho. Em virtude da vasta diversidade de ocupaÃÃes catalogadas pelo IBGE (cerca de 800) e para permitir tratamento estatÃstico em modelagem economÃtrica, aplica-se o princÃpio teÃrico do esquema de classes de Erickson, Goldthorpe e Portocarrero (1979) e Goldthorpe, Llewellyn e Payne (1987) para reduzi-las em apenas sete. A abordagem metodolÃgica baseia-se em equaÃÃes mincerianas quantÃlicas, estimadas em vÃrios estratos da distribuiÃÃo de rendimentos dos trabalhadores, sobre a qual à feita uma decomposiÃÃo para verificar o hiato entre os rendimentos dos indivÃduos com atributos inerentes distintos, bem como entre aqueles residentes em regiÃes mais e menos desenvolvidas do paÃs. Os resultados das estimaÃÃes ratificam a importÃncia da anÃlise desagregada em estratos ocupacionais e por quantis, uma vez que os efeitos das variÃveis explicativas sÃo distintos ao longo das distribuiÃÃes de rendimentos e entre as ocupaÃÃes. Em relaÃÃo Ãs lacunas existentes entre as distribuiÃÃes de rendimentos, verifica-se um glass ceiling effect em algumas ocupaÃÃes, ou seja, a defasagem à maior no topo da distribuiÃÃo. Entretanto, na maioria dos casos ocorre um sticky floor effect, isto Ã, o hiato à maior na parte inferior da distribuiÃÃo. AlÃm disso, diferente das lacunas entre gÃneros, que sÃo decorrentes apenas da remuneraÃÃo Ãs caracterÃsticas dos indivÃduos, o que à entendido como discriminaÃÃo, os diferenciais de rendimentos entre raÃas e regiÃes tambÃm sÃo decorrentes das diferentes caracterÃsticas dos trabalhadores.

Este trabalho busca trazer robustez aos resultados observados em estudos comparativos entre escolas públicas e privadas do Brasil, que indicam uma maior capacidade da rede particular de ensino em gerar qualidade educacional. Para isso, uma abordagem quantílica, baseada na seleção em observadas, foi realizada. Vale ressaltar que, ao contrário de outras abordagens, a realizada nesta dissertação tem inferência assintótica. A base de dados utilizada foi a do SAEB de 2005, para as provas de matemática de oitava série. Novamente foi evidenciada uma superioridade das escolas privadas, mesmo controlando para diversas covariadas de alunos, professores e escolas. Este fato fortalece a possibilidade de implantação de políticas de cupons para escolas particulares, apesar de haver a necessidade de estudos adicionais sobre o assunto. Em relação às covariadas que reduziriam a distância entre as distribuições de notas de alunos de escolas públicas e privadas, constatouse que fatores determinantes do grupo de alunos na escola e na sala (peer group effects) seriam os mais importantes. Isso corrobora com resultados de outros trabalhos que evidenciam a importância desses fatores para explicar a maior efetividade das escolas privadas em relação às escolas públicas. / This paper aims at bringing strength to the results observed in other studies that point out a larger ability of the private school network to generate quality education in Brazil. To achieve that result, this study applies a quantile approach based on the selection on observable variables. Note that unlike other approaches , the one applied in this dissertation has asymptotic inference. The data base used in this study was that of SAEB 2005 for math tests in the 8th grade. As in other studies, here again the superiority of the private schools was made evident, even though various students\', teachers\' and schools\' covariates are controlled. This result strengthens the possibility of a policy of quotas for private schools, although additional studies on the subject are necessary. In relation to the variables that would reduce the distance between the grades distributions of students on public and private schools, peer group effects were observed to be the more important ones. These results are similar to the ones observed in other studies that point out the importance of the peer group effects to explain the higher effectiveness of the private schools in comparison to the public schools.

nÃo hà / A presente Tese à formada pela junÃÃo de trÃs estudos na Ãrea de microeconometria relacionada ao mercado de trabalho brasileiro, buscando levantar questÃes que buscam explicar os diferenciais salariais entre diferentes grupos presentes neste mercado. Em cada capÃtulo foi empregado trÃs diferentes metodologias de estimaÃÃo com o uso de diferentes bases de dados. No primeiro capÃtulo, AnÃlise dos Diferenciais de SalÃrios no Mercado de Trabalho Brasileiro a partir da OrientaÃÃo Sexual, procurou-se medir o diferencial de salÃrios a partir da orientaÃÃo sexual no mercado de trabalho brasileiro, fazendo uso da nova metodologia de identificaÃÃo de arranjos familiares apresentada no Censo de 2010 (IBGE). ApÃs estimar as equaÃÃes de salÃrios com correÃÃo do viÃs de seleÃÃo amostral proposto por Heckman (1979) os resultados apontaram na direÃÃo de ausÃncia de discriminaÃÃo contra as minorias de gays e lÃsbicas no mercado de trabalho nacional. O segundo capÃtulo, DecomposiÃÃo Contrafactual de Oaxaca-Blinder dos Diferenciais de SalÃrios por GÃnero e RaÃa no Mercado de Trabalho Privado Brasileiro com CorreÃÃo de ViÃs de SeleÃÃo Amostral: Uma AnÃlise para Setores EconÃmicos e Tipos de OcupaÃÃes, fez uso da base de dados da PNAD do IBGE (2013), quando se buscou analisar as principais causas da desigualdade salarial por gÃnero e raÃa no mercado de trabalho privado brasileiro detalhando por setores de atividade econÃmica e por tipos de ocupaÃÃo. Para se alcanÃar tal objetivo foi utilizado a metodologia de decomposiÃÃo salarial na mÃdia proposta por Oaxaca-Blinder (1973), apÃs a estimaÃÃo das equaÃÃes de salÃrios quando tambÃm foram feitas as correÃÃes da seletividade amostral. Os principais resultados apontaram para a importÃncia das variÃveis de capital humano para explicaÃÃo de grande parte do diferencial de salÃrios entre homens brancos e os demais grupos investigados via diferenÃas de dotaÃÃes, em especial, a variÃvel escolaridade que ajuda a reduzir o diferencial de salÃrios entre os homens brancos e as mulheres brancas e negras. Chama atenÃÃo a participaÃÃo em alguns tipos de ocupaÃÃes quando as mulheres brancas e negras ganham, em mÃdia, mais que os homens brancos. Por fim, a elevada participaÃÃo e representatividade do termo de intercepto, na explicaÃÃo do diferencial de salÃrios por gÃnero e raÃa, tanto no mercado de trabalho total, como na maioria dos setores econÃmicos e tipos de ocupaÃÃes investigadas explica a maior parte deste fenÃmeno, quando o homem branco ganha mais, simplesmente porque à homem e branco. O terceiro e Ãltimo capÃtulo, MudanÃas Estruturais nos Retornos Educacionais e nos Diferenciais Raciais de SalÃrios por GÃnero no Brasil para Diferentes Grupos de Idade: Uma Abordagem de RegressÃo QuantÃlica com CorreÃÃo do ViÃs de SeleÃÃo Amostral, fez 7 uso das PNADS de 2003 e 2013 e de tÃcnicas de regressÃo quantÃlica com correÃÃo de viÃs de seleÃÃo proposto por Buchinsky (1998b) para analisar mudanÃas nos retornos da educaÃÃo e nos diferenciais raciais de salÃrios por gÃnero e por grupos de idade no mercado de trabalho brasileiro entre os anos dois anos. Diferentes valores para os retornos da escolaridade e para os diferenciais raciais foram observados principalmente nos quantis mais elevados da distribuiÃÃo de salÃrios para quase todas as faixas de idade. Os retornos salariais das mulheres ficaram acima dos retornos salariais dos homens para todos os quantis estimados, em todos os grupos de idade, nos dois anos analisados. Por fim, nota-se uma reduÃÃo nÃtida nos retornos salariais para ambos os sexos e a melhora no padrÃo de discriminaÃÃo no mercado de trabalho brasileiro entre anos de 2003 e 2013. / This thesis is formed by the junction of three studies in Microeconometrics area related to the Brazilian labor market, seeking to raise questions that try to explain the pay gap between different groups present in this market. In each chapter was used three different methods of estimation with the use of different databases. In the first chapter, Analysis of Wage Differentials in the Brazilian labor market from the Sexual Orientation, sought to measure the wage differential from sexual orientation in the Brazilian labor market, using the new methodology of identification of family arrangements presented in Census 2010 (IBGE). After estimating the wage equations with correction of sample selection bias proposed by Heckman (1979) the results pointed in the direction of non-discrimination against minorities of gays and lesbians in the national labor market. The second chapter, Counterfactual decomposition of Oaxaca - Blinder Wage Differentials by Gender and Race in the Brazilian Private Job Market with Bias Correction Sample Selection: An Analysis for Economic Sectors and Types of Occupations, made use of the National Household Survey database IBGE (2013), when it sought to analyze the root causes of wage inequality by gender and race in the Brazilian private labor market detailing by sectors of economic activity and types of occupation. To achieve this goal we used the wage decomposition methodology on average proposed by Oaxaca - Blinder (1973), after the estimation of wage equations when the corrections were also made of the sample selectivity. The main results pointed to the importance of human capital variables to explain much of the wage gap between white men and other groups investigated via differences appropriations, in particular the variable schooling that helps reduce the wage differential between white men and white and black women. Noteworthy is the participation in some types of occupations when white and black women earn on average more than white men. Finally, the high participation and representativeness of the intercept term, the wage differential explanation by gender and race, both in the overall labor market, as in most economic sectors and types of occupations investigated explains most of this phenomenon when the white man earns more , simply because he is man and white. The third and final chapter, Structural Changes in Education Returns and Differential Wage Race for Gender in Brazil for Different Groups of Age: An Approach of quantile regression with bias correction of Sample Selection, made use of the National Household Survey 2003 and 2013 and quantile regression techniques with selection bias correction proposed by Buchinsky (1998b) to analyze changes in the returns to education and racial differentials by gender wage and age groups in the Brazilian labor market between 9 the two years. Different values for the returns of schooling and racial differences were mainly observed in the highest quantile of the distribution of wages for almost all age groups. The wage returns of women were above the wage returns of men for all estimated quantile in all age groups in the two years analyzed. Finally, it is worth mentioning the reduction in wage returns to both sexes and the improvement in the standard of discrimination in the national labor market between the years 2003 and 2013.