Cortical bone tissue - one of the most intriguing materials found in nature - demonstrate some fascinating behaviours that have attracted great attention of many researchers from all over the world. In contrast to engineering materials, bone has its unique characters: it is a material that has both sufficient stiffness and toughness to provide physical support and protection to internal organs and yet adaptively balanced for its weight and functional requirements. Its structure and mechanical properties are of great importance to the physiological functioning of the body. Still, our understanding on the mechanical deformation processes of cortical bone tissue is rather limited. Penetration into a bone tissue is an intrinsic part of many clinical procedures, such as orthopaedic surgery, bone implant and repair operations. The success of bone-cutting surgery depends largely on precision of the operation and the extent of damage it causes to the surrounding tissues. The anisotropic behaviour of cortical bone acts as a distinctive protective mechanism and increases the difficulty during cutting process. A comprehensive understanding of deformation and damage mechanisms during the cutting process is necessary for improving the operational accuracy and postoperative recovery of patients. However, the current literature on experimental results provides limited information about processes in the vicinity of the cutting tool-bone interaction zone; while; numerical models cannot fully describe the material anisotropy and the effect of damage mechanisms of cortical bone tissue. In addition, a conventional finite-element scheme faces numerical challenges due to large deformation and highly localised distortion in the process zone. This PhD project is aimed at bridging the gap in current lack of understanding on cutting-induced deformation and fracture processes in the cortical bone tissue through experimental and numerical approaches. A number of experimental studies were accomplished to characterise the mechanical behaviour of bovine cortical bone tissue and to analyse deformation and damage mechanisms associated with the cutting process II along different bone axes in four anatomic cortices, namely, anterior, posterior, medial and lateral. These experiments included: (1) a Vickers hardness test to provide initial assessments on deformation and damage processes in the cortical bone tissue under a concentrated compressive load; (2) uniaxial tension and compression tests, performed to understand the effect of orientation and local variability of microstructure constituents on the macroscopic material properties of cortical bone; (3) fracture toughness tests, aimed at elucidating the anisotropic character of fracture toughness of cortical bone and its various fracture toughness mechanisms in relation to different orientations; (4) penetration tests, conducted to evaluate and validate mechanisms involved in bone cutting as well as orientation associated anisotropic deformation and damage processes at various different cortex positions. Information obtained in these experimental studies was used to assist the development of advanced finite-element models: (1) the effective homogenised XFEM models developed in conjunction with three-point bending test to represent a macroscopically, anisotropic elasticplastic fracture behaviour of cortical bone tissue; (2) three microstructured XFEM models to further investigate the effect of the randomly distributed microstructural constituents on the local fracture process and the variability of fracture toughness of cortical bone; (3) a novel finite-element modelling approach encompassing both conventional and SPH elements, incorporating anisotropic elastic-plastic material properties and progressive damage criteria to simulate large deformation and damage processes of cortical bone under penetration. The established models can adequately and accurately reflect large deformations and damage processes during the penetration in bone cutting. The results of this study made valuable contributions to our existing understanding of the mechanics of cortical bone tissue and most importantly to the understanding of its mechanical behaviours during the cutting process.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T12:49:42Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T14:03:16Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 09834.pdf: 11774838 bytes, checksum: 940cf578592bd4491d6495c63535f0a7 (MD5) / Dissertacao (Mestrado) / IPEN/D / Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN/CNEN-SP

The employment of composite materials in the aerospace industry has been gradually considered due to the fundamental lightweight and strength characteristics that these type of materials offer. The science material and technological progress that has been reached, matches perfectly with the requirements for high-performance materials in aircraft and aerospace structures, thus, the development of primary structure elements applying composite materials became something very convenient. It is extremely important to pay attention to the failure modes that influence composite materials performances, since, these failures lead to a loss of stiffness and strength of the laminate. Delamination is a failure mode present in most of the damaged structures and can be ruinous, considering that, the evolution of interlaminar defects can carry the structure to a total failure followed by its collapse. Different techniques are usually adopted to accurately predict the behavior of damaged structures but, due to the complex nature of failure phenomena, there is not an established pattern. The present research project aims to develop a delamination propagation model to estimate a progressive interlaminar delamination failure in laminated composite materials and to allow the prediction of material\'s degradation due to the delamination phenomenon. Experimental tests assisted by ASTM Standards were performed to determine material\'s parameter, like the strain energy release rate, using GFRPs laminated composites. The delamination propagation model proposed was implemented as subroutines in FORTRAN language (UMAT-User Material Subroutine) with formulations based on the Fracture Mechanics. Finally, the model was compiled beside with the commercial Finite Element program ABAQUSTM. / O emprego de materiais compósitos na indústria aeroespacial tem sido gradualmente utilizado devido às suas características fundamentais, como peso leve e alta rigidez, que este tipo de material oferece. Tanto a ciência do material como o desenvolvimento tecnológico que se tem logrado, possibilitaram que estes materiais cumprissem com os requisitos de desempenho para aplicações em estruturas aeronáuticas e aeroespaciais, por tanto, o desenvolvimento de elementos de estruturas primárias usando materiais compósitos, passou a ser muito conveniente. É de extrema importância prestar atenção aos modos de falha que comprometem a performance dos materiais compósitos, uma vez que, estas falhas levam a uma perda de resistência e rigidez do laminado. A delaminação é um modo de falha presente na maioria de estruturas danificadas e pode ser desastroso, considerando que, a evolução dos defeitos interlaminares podem levar a estrutura a falhar seguido pelo colapso estructural. Diferentes técnicas são geralmente adotadas para prever, de maneira correta, o comportamento de estruturas danificadas, porém, devido à natureza complexa do fenômeno de falha, não existe um padrão estabelecido. O presente trabalho de pesquisa visa desenvolver um modelo de delaminação e de propagação da delaminação para estimar a evolução da falha interlaminar em materiais compósitos laminados e permitir a predição do comportamento do material com a evolução da delaminação. Ensaios experimentais auxiliados por normas ASTM foram realizados para determinar parâmetros do material, tais como, as taxas de liberação de energia de deformação, usando materiais compósitos laminados de matriz polimérica reforçada com fibra de vidro. O modelo de propagação da delaminação proposto, foi implementado como uma sub-rotina em linguagem FORTRAN (UMAT – User Material) com formulações baseadas na Mecânica da Fratura. Finalmente, o modelo foi compilado com o software comercial de Elementos Finitos, ABAQUSTM.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T12:49:42Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2014-10-09T14:03:16Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 09834.pdf: 11774838 bytes, checksum: 940cf578592bd4491d6495c63535f0a7 (MD5) / Dissertacao (Mestrado) / IPEN/D / Instituto de Pesquisas Energeticas e Nucleares - IPEN/CNEN-SP

Orientador: Itamar Ferreira / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecanica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-13T02:49:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Carnio_MarcoAntonio_D.pdf: 4129193 bytes, checksum: 27ed4b4a807f05043017033527f2d6f8 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / Resumo: O concreto reforçado com fibras (CRF) é um compósito constituído de duas fases: concreto (matriz) e fibras (reforço). As fibras são elementos descontínuos de vários aspectos geométricos e materiais, destacando-se atualmente as fibras metálicas (aço) e as fibras sintéticas (polipropileno). Em geral, os teores de fibras em volume adicionados à matriz se dividem em: baixos teores - até 0,5%; médios teores - entre 0,5% e 1% e altos teores - acima de 1%. Dentre as aplicações do CRF com baixos teores, a utilização em pavimentos de concreto é a mais significativa, cuja solicitação predominante é cíclica. O estudo da fadiga se divide em iniciação da trinca, propagação da trinca e fratura final, e a vida em fadiga (Nf) é caracterizada pela soma do número de ciclos até a fratura. Dessa forma, como no estudo da fadiga do CRF a maioria dos trabalhos se concentra na obtenção de seu comportamento por meio das curvas S-N (tensão em função do número de ciclos até a fratura), este trabalho tem como objetivo estudar experimentalmente a propagação da trinca por fadiga dos CRFs com baixos teores, por meio de ensaios de flexão em corpos-de-prova prismáticos de seção quadrada, submetidos a carga cíclica com freqüência de 20 Hz e razão de carga R = 0,1, representando seu comportamento pelas curvas da/dN-_K (taxa de propagação de trinca por fadiga em função da variação do fator de intensidade de tensão), ensaios de flexão em corpos-de-prova prismáticos de seção quadrada, submetidos a carga monotônica, representando seu comportamento pelas curvas carga monotônica-deslocamento de abertura da boca da trinca (CMOD) e o estudo macroscópico da seção fraturada desses concretos, após cargas cíclicas e monotônica para avaliação dos mecanismos de fratura da seção, visando melhor entender a contribuição dessas adições nos CRFs submetidos a cargas cíclicas. Os resultados indicam que o CRF com fibras de polipropileno de 54 mm apresenta melhor desempenho à propagação de trinca por fadiga, com comportamento equivalente aos CRFs com fibras de aço de 60 mm e que, o CRF com fibras de aço de 35 mm apresenta melhor desempenho dentre todos tipos e teores de fibras estudadas. Quanto ao comportamento à carga monotônica, o desempenho dos CRFs com fibras de aço de 60 mm se mostrou melhor dentre os estudados, desempenho esse não confirmado quanto à propagação de trinca por fadiga. Também se conclui que a ancoragem das fibras interfere no comportamento dos CRFs às cargas monotônica e cíclica, sendo que a degradação da ancoragem mecânica nas fibras de aço submetidas a cargas cíclicas penaliza mais os CRFs com fibras de aço de 60 mm quanto ao desempenho à propagação de trinca por fadiga. Na avaliação da superfície de fratura dos CRFs, verificou-se que a adição de fibras interfere nessa superfície, apresentando-se mais plana para os CRFs com fibras sintéticas e mais irregular para os CRFs com fibras de aço. / Abstract: The fibers reinforced concrete (FRC) is a composite formed by two phases: concrete (matrix) and fibers (reinforce). The fibers are discontinuous elements of several geometric aspects and materials, currently detaching the metal fibers (steel) and the synthetic fibers (polypropylene). In general, the contents of fibers in volume added to the matrix are separated in: low contents - up to 0.5%; medium contents - between 0.5% and 1% and high contents - above 1%. Among the applications of the FRC with low contents, the usage in concrete pavements is the most significant, which predominant request is cyclic. The study of fatigue is divided into initialization of crack, propagation of crack and final fracture and the life in fatigue (Nf) is characterized by the sum of number of cycles up to the fracture. In this way, as in the study of fatigue of FRC the majority of the work focuses on obtaining their behavior through the S-N curves (tensile due to the number of cycles up to the fracture) this work has as objective to study experimentally the fatigue crack propagation of the low contents FRC, by means of testing the flexure in prismatic samples of square section, subjected to a cyclic load of 20 Hz frequency and load ratio R=0.1, representing their behavior through the da/dN-_K curves (rate of fatigue crack propagation in lights of the variation of the intensity of the tensile), by testing the flexure in prismatic samples of square section, subjected to a monotonic load, representing their behavior through the curves monotonic load - cracking mouth opening displacement (CMOD) and the macroscopic study of the fracture section, to better understand the contribution of these additions into the FRC subjected to a cyclic load. The results indicate that the FRC with synthetic fibers of 54 mm size shows a better performance for fatigue crack propagation, with equivalent behavior as of the FRCs with steel fibers of 60 mm size and that the FRC with steel fibers of 35 mm size shows even a better performance among all types and contents of fibers studied. About the behavior of the monotonic load, the performance of the FRCs with steel fibers of 60 mm size was better among all studied behaviors, but that performance is not confirmed regarding the fatigue crack propagation. Also concludes that the anchorage of the fibers interfere in the behavior of both FRC subjected to monotonic load and cyclic load, and the degradation of the mechanic anchorage in the steel fibers, subjected to a cyclic loads punish more the FRCs with the steel fibers of 60 mm regarding to their performance of fatigue crack propagation. Evaluating the fracture surfaces of the FRC, verify that the addition of fibers interfere on these, resulting in a more flat to the FRC with synthetic fibers and more irregular to the FRCs with steel fibers. / Doutorado / Materiais e Processos de Fabricação / Doutor em Engenharia Mecânica

La liaison aube-disque d'un turboréacteur est soumise en opération à un chargement complexe composé d'une forte pression et d'un mouvement relatif oscillatoire, qui génère un phénomène de fretting–fatigue. L'apparition de celui-ci réduit la résistance en fatigue des structures et engendre des dégradations qui, sous différentes formes (usure, rupture), peuvent conduire à une perte de fonctionnalité. Afin d'assurer la fiabilité des turboréacteurs, il est donc utile d'améliorer l'estimation de la durée de vie sous chargement de fretting.Cette thèse est dédiée à la fois à l'étude de l'amorçage de la première fissure et de sa micropropagation dans le domaine dit "des fissures courtes", c'est-à-dire celles qui sont encore directement influencées par la microstructure locale. Pour remplir la première exigence, on développe un modèle numérique mettant en oeuvre un critère multiaxial de fatigue. Il permet de prédire la position de l'amorçage et le nombre de cycles correspondant, en prenant en compte d'éventuels traitements de surface. Dans un second temps, une étude numérique de la direction et de la cinétique de propagation des fissures est mise en place avec prise en compte de l'influence de la microstructure du matériau, à l'aide d'un modèle de plasticité cristalline qui prend en compte les différentes familles de systèmes de glissement. La vitesse de fissuration diminue à l'approche des joints de grains, ce qui est qualitativement conformes aux observations expérimentales. / The blade-disc fixings of an aircraft engine are subjected to complex loadings composed by a high pressure and oscillatory relative motions during operation. This corresponds to a loading type called fretting. The appearance of fretting phenomenon reduces the fatigue resistance of structuresand generates damage which, in various forms (wear, rupture), can lead to a loss of functionality. In order to ensure the reliability of turbo-engines, the improvement of the models for estimating life prediction is then needed.This thesis is devoted to the study of crack initiation and crack micro-propagation, in the so called "short crack domain", where they are still in interaction with the microstructure. At first, a multiaxial fatigue model is proposed. It predicts the location and the number of cycles to initiation, taken into account the possible surface treatments. Then, a numerical study of the direction and the kinetics of crack propagation is performed with consideration to the influence of the material microstructure. A crystal plasticity model is used, that takes into account all the relevant families of crystallographic slip systems. The crack plane is assumed to be one of the crystallographic plane where the plastic slip is the most intense. The crack propagation rate decreases when approaching grain boundaries, that is qualitatively consistent with the experimental observations.

Cette Thèse a porté sur l’étude en fatigue oligocyclique et en fissuration des joints soudés des aciers inoxydables superausténitique (Alloy28) et duplex (UNS S32550). L’effet de la présence du joint soudé dans la structure a été examiné.La première étape de ce travail a consisté à étudier le comportement monotone et cyclique du métal de base et du métal d’apport de chaque nuance d’acier inoxydable de l’étude. Les lois de comportement à température ambiante ont été ainsi identifiées.Des essais de fatigue oligocyclique sous différents niveaux de déformation imposée ont été effectués sur les aciers inoxydables et leurs joints soudés. Les résultats indiquent que la durée de vie des soudures est plus faible que celle du métal de base. Les analyses des mécanismes d’endommagement montrent que la durée de vie réduite des joints soudés est attribuée à l’accélération de la phase d’amorçage.Enfin, les essais de propagation de fissure sur l’Alloy28 montrent que le rapport de charge a un effet sur la cinétique de propagation dû au phénomène de fermeture par rugosité et par plasticité. Les vitesses de propagation de fissure dans le métal d’apport sont très similaires à ceux du métal de base. Ceci est dû à la compensation de plusieurs effets comme le phénomène de fermeture, la rugosité et les contraintes résiduelles. L’acier inoxydable duplex ne présente pas d’effet de rapport de charge sur la cinétique de fissuration. Les vitesses de propagation de fissure du métal d’apport sont aussi comparables à celles du métal de base. / This thesis focused on the study of low cycle fatigue and crack growth of welded joints of superaustenitic (Alloy28) and Duplex (UNS S32550) stainless steels. The effect of the presence of the welded joint in the structure was also examined.The first part of this work was to study the monotonous and cyclic behavior of the base metal and weld metal of each stainless steel. The behavior laws of each material were identified at room temperature.Low cycle fatigue tests at different levels of deformation were performed on stainless steels and their welded joints. The results indicate that the fatigue life of welded joints is lower than the base metal. The analyses of damage mechanisms show that the short life of welded joints is attributed to the acceleration of the initiation phase.Finally, crack propagation tests in Alloy28 stainless steel show that load ratio has an effect on the crack growth rate due to the closure phenomenon by roughness and plasticity. The crack growth rate in the weld metal is very similar to that of the base metal. This is due to the compensation of various effects such as the roughness, the residual stress and the closure phenomenon. The duplex stainless steel does not present load ratio effect on the crack growth rate. The crack growth rates of the weld metal of the duplex stainless steel are also comparable to those of the base metal.

La détermination de la tenue mécanique de points soudés est un enjeu industriel important, eten particulier dans le cas d’aciers à Très Haute Résistance. Actuellement, l’essai de tractionen croix est l’essai mécanique le plus répandu caractérisant la tenue des points soudés.Toutefois, l’étude de l’influence des différentes zones constituant le point soudé sur la tenueest difficile en se basant sur cet essai.Un essai d’enfoncement de coin a été développé afin de caractériser les ruptures interfacialesdes points soudés. Une section transverse d’un point soudé est observée tandis qu’un coin estinséré entre les deux tôles soudés. Une caméra CCD enregistre l'observation de lapropagation de la fissure.Le pliage limité des tôles durant la fissuration rend efficace la classification des différentspoints soudés par l'énergie totale dissipée par unité de surface rompue. De plus, la mesure insitu de l’angle d’ouverture de fissure caractérise la fissuration stable de la zone fondue. Dessimulations par éléments finis de l’essai sont conduites afin d’estimer un lien entre cesmesures et la rupture du matériau, modélisée par des zones cohésives.La rupture interfaciale de points soudés d’aciers DP et TRIP a été étudiée. Les mesuresexpérimentales permettent d’estimer les paramètres de modèles cohésifs représentatifs de larupture de la zone fondue, constituant des données fiables susceptibles d’être utilisées danstoute simulation numérique du comportement du point soudé. / Characterization of spot weld strength is a key industrial issue, particularly in the case of Advanced High Strength Steels. Today, the most widely used mechanical test evaluating this strength is the Cross Tensile Test. However, investigating the role of the different zones of one spot weld based on this test is difficult.A wedge test has been developed in order to characterize interfacial failures of spot welds. A cross section of one spot weld is observed while a wedge is inserted in between the two welded sheets. A CCD camera records the observation of the propagating crack. The limited sheet bending occurring during crack propagation allows the spot weld classification based on the total energy dissipated per unit fractured area to be efficient.Furthermore, the stable crack propagation is characterized by the in situ measurement of the crack opening angle. Finite element simulations of the test are carried out to estimate a relation between these measurements and the material resistance, approached by a cohesive zone model.Interfacial failures of spot welds of DP and TRIP steels have been investigated. The experimental measurements allow to estimate parameters of a cohesive zone model representative of the molten material failure, providing reliable and appropriate data for simulations of the mechanical behavior of the complete spot weld.

The influences of a superheated steam environment and temperature on the nearthreshold crack growth behaviour of mild steel during rotating bending fatigue were investigated. A fatigue machine in which rotating bending is simulated was designed and built to allow continuous crack growth measurement. Experiments compared the threshold stress intensities (∆Kth ) for air at 24 °C, air at 160 °C and steam at 160 °C.Air at 160 °C yielded the lowest threshold stress intensity in both cases. Oxide thicknesses in the vicinity of the threshold were estimated from temper colours. The difference in threshold stress intensities can be explained by the concept of oxideinduced crack closure. / Dissertation (MEng (Metallurgical Engineering))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering / MEng / unrestricted

Foram estudadas as propriedades de fadiga em dois grupos de soldas de alta resistência e baixa liga com diferentes composições microestruturais. As soldas do grupo A apresentaram microestruturas compostas de ferrita acicular, ferrita alotriomórfica e ferrita de Widmanstätten, com limite de escoamento de aproximadamente 460 MPa, enquanto que as soldas do grupo B apresentaram microestruturas compostas de martensita de baixo carbono, bainita e ferrita acicular, com limite de escoamento de aproximadamente 850 MPa. A partir do ensaio de trincas longas, foi obtida a taxa de crescimento por ciclos de carregamento, da/dN, de da/dN=1,18·10-12·DeltaK2,91 e da/dN=1,34·10-11·DeltaK2,64, respectivamente para as soldas dos grupos A e B. Como pode ser observado a partir destas equações, a taxa de crescimento foi mais alta para o grupo B. Da análise do fechamento da trinca pode ser concluído que o principal fator determinante de uma menor taxa de propagação para as soldas do grupo A foi a plasticidade desenvolvida pela estrutura. Dos ensaios de trincas curtas foi observado que no caso das soldas do grupo A, uma vez nucleada a trinca, esta se propagava até o colapso do corpo de prova. Para as soldas do grupo B foi observado que não bastava a existência de uma trinca para que esta se propagasse até a fratura total do corpo de prova e que o fator controlador foi a granulomentria associada a uma determinada composição microestrutural. / The fatigue properties of two groups of high strength low alloy steel weld metals with different microstructural composition were studied. Weld metals from group A presented microstructures composed of acicular ferrite, Widmanstätten ferrite and allotriomorphic ferrite, with yield strength of 460 MPa. Weld metals from group B exhibited a microstructural composition of low carbon martensite, bainite and acicular ferrite, with a yield strength of 850 MPa. The fatigue crack growth per cycle of loading, da/dN, for weld metals from groups A and B is obtained from the relationships, da/dN=1,18·10-12·DeltaK2,91 and da/dN=1,34·10-11·DeltaK2,64, respectively. As can be seen from these equations, the crack growth rate was higher for group B. From the crack growth closure analysis, it may be concluded that the lower crack growth rate obtained for weld metals from group A was mainly due to the higher crack tip plasticity developed in this type of microstructure. From the short crack fatigue tests, it was observed for weld metals from group A, that once a crack was nucleated, it propagated until the testpiece plastic collapsed. For weld metals from group B, it was observed that the existence of a crack was not sufficient to cause the complete testpiece failure, and the association of the grain size with the local microstructure was the main factor controlling the failure process.