This study analyses judicial approaches to sentencing offenders under the age of 18 convicted of serious crimes and their adult counterparts. It traces sentencing patterns, trends and shifts from 1950 to 2009 with reference to key moments. The study seeks to identify factors that determine the choice of sentence. Indeed, competing penal theories appear to be behind judicial decisions. In this regard it is claimed that although it is difficult to identify the extent of factors considered in sentencing decisions, seriousness of crime seems to carry more weight than the prior record and age factor in the selection of a sentence. The study applied both quantitative and qualitative methodologies, using primary or historical and secondary sources of data collection. This involved studying real court cases, the observation of trials and interviews with Wynberg regional court magistrates, Mitchells Plain regional court magistrates and Cape High Court Judges as part of primary-historical data collected. Penal statistics and data gathered included law reports, penological literature was analysed and computerised, and philosophical interpretation of findings was used. The study concludes that sentencing approaches are still marked by inconsistency and vagueness, which require to be improved by ongoing assessment within the courts in pursuit of balanced sentencing that meets various goals. It is pointed out that there are variations between the courts, and among different regional magistrates and judges, which require to be justified in the light of the divergences in crime seriousness and offenders alike. The study claims that sentencing is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, involving history, law and sociology. It further recommends that persons under the age of 18 convicted of serious crime should be accorded less culpability compared to adults with regard to sentence severity. / Criminology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Penology)

The goal of this research was to determine the procedures used for conducting a search and seizure in a tax-related offence in terms of the Criminal Procedure Act, Act 51 of 1977. Aspects that cause problems for the South African Revenue Service (SARS) investigators are the application for a search warrant and the activities that take place before, during and after the search and seizure. An introduction, definition and explanation are given of certain key concepts such as forensic and criminal investigations, as well as their objectives and purpose. The various search methods are also discussed and explained as are the chain of custody and evidence in general. A large part of this research deals with the legal requirements for a search and seizure in a tax-related offence and encompasses issues such as the procedures for obtaining a search warrant, pre-raid briefing, conducting the search, and the seizing of, marking, storage and disposal of documents. The findings of the research are discussed and recommendations subsequently made regarding the shortcomings identified. The findings that were made related to the process and procedure to obtain a search warrant, the actual execution of a search and seizure and the legislation that authorises searches and seizures in taxrelated offences. Further findings were made in respect of the mandate of SARS criminal investigators to investigate, the admissibility of evidence obtained from a search and seizure and the marking, recording, storage and disposal of seized items. Recommendations were made regarding training, improved communication and skills transfer to address the shortcomings identified. / Police Practice / (M.Tech. (Forensic investigation))

In the light of a more punitive stance in Corrections and public discontent with the criminal justice system, a number of studies have been conducted since 1970 testing public punitiveness, probably in an attempt to determine whether sentences laid down by courts are in line with public perceptions on just deserts. This study combines two scales: The first a Likert scale measuring punitiveness as such and the second a "Just Deserts" scale testing public reactions in terms of imprisonment for crime descriptions. By using Pearson's correlation, no positive correlation could be established between these two scales. Profiles of the top and bottom 15% scorers on both scales showed that the scales were, if anything, negatively related. This information is informative in the sense that opinion polls showing public discontentment with sentencing cannot be seen as a true reflection of their reactions to more descriptive cases. / Penology / M.A. (Penology)

Summaries in Afrikaans and English / Text in Afrikaans / 'n Kort elementologiese uiteensetting vir strafregtelike aanspreeklikheid word gevolg deur bewysregtelike begrippe wat van toepassing is op vermoedens by toerekeningsvatbaarheid. Die historiese regsposisie asook die ontwikkeling in die huidige Suid-Afrikaanse reg met betrekking tot geestesongesteldes, kinders en persone wat 'n verweer van nie-patologiese ontoerekeningsvatbaarheid insluit, word bespreek. Daar word gekonsentreer op ·die ontwikkeling van 'n algemene verweer van niepatologiese ontoerekeningsvatbaarheid. Die konstitusionele reg, vennoedens en ontoerekeningsvatbaarheid word aan die hand van Suid-Afrikaanse regspraak en die Interim Grondwet bespreek. Daar word na buitelandse reg gekyk ten einde 'n aanbeveling te kan maak wat grondwetlik nie sal indruis op die reg van die individu tot onskuld nie. 'n Algemene verweer van nie-patologiese ontoerekeningvatbaarheid word onderstellll mits dit met omsigtigheid deur die howe benader word. Die arbitrere ouderdomsgrens vir vasstelling van toerekeningsvatbaarheid by kinders word gekritiseer en 'n verhoorbaarheidvasstellingseenheid word aanbeveel. / A short elementological discussion of criminal responsibility is followed by concepts of law of evidence that is applicable to presumptions of accountability. The historical legal position as well as the development in the current South African law and the present legal position with reference to the mentally disturbed children and persons with a defence of non-pathological unaccountability are included and discussed. The constitutional law, presumptions and unaccountablility are discussed with reference to the South African case law and the Interim Constitution. Foreign law is perused so that a recommendation could be made that would not interfere with the rights of the individual to be deemed innocent. A general defence of non-pathological unaccountability is supported if it is treated with the necessary circumspection by the courts. The arbitrary age boundaries for the determination of accountability in children is critized and a unit to determine trialability for pathological and non-pathological accountability is recommended. / Criminal & Procedural Law / LL.M.

In this dissertation the problems surrounding the sentencing stage and factors which influence the sentence are briefly considered. The emphasis is on the use and value of a pre-sentence report in determining suitable sentences other than imprisonment. Historical background in the use of pre-sentence reports in South Africa, England and America is briefly referred to. Relevant concepts, such as individualisation of punishment, are considered in relation to possible sentences such as compensation, fines, community service, and correctional supervision. It is concluded that the provisions of sections 274 and 276A of the Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1 977 are not enough to regulate the use of pre-sentence reports in South Africa. It is further concluded that legislation is needed in this area, but in the meantime, our courts should work towards developing guidelines based on the provisions of the Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1 977. / Criminal & Procedural Law / LL.M (Law)

Thesis (LLM)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The permanent International Criminal Court (ICC) will come into operation after the 60th ratification of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court of 1998. The ICC will have jurisdiction over the most serious international crimes, namely war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity. The focus of this thesis is the difficulties surrounding the admissibility of a case before the ICC. There are basically two legs to this analysis: jurisdiction and complementarity .. Jurisdiction of the ICC is analysed in historical and theoretical context. This comprises an overview of the international tribunals since the First World War, and more specifically their impact on the development of jurisdiction in international criminal law. Secondly, the thesis is examining the jurisdiction of the ICC in terms of the specific provisions of the Rome Statute. This analysis comprises a detailed analysis of all the provisions of the Rome Statute that have an impact on the exercise of the ICC's jurisdiction. The relationship between the ICC and national courts is a difficult relationship based on a compromise at the Rome Conference in 1998. The principle underlying this relationship is known as "complementarity". This : means that the ICC will only exercise its jurisdiction if a national court is "unwilling" or "unable" to exercise its jurisdiction. A detailed analysis of the different provisions of the Rome Statute, as well as some references to other international tribunals, serve to analyse the impact of complementarity on the eventual ambit of the ICC's jurisdiction. In conclusion, some suggestions regarding the admissibility of cases and the difficult relationship between the ICC and national courts are made. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die permanente Internasionale Strafhof (ISH) sal met sy werksaamhede begin na die 60ste ratifikasie van die Statuut van Rome van 1998. Die ISH sal jurisdiksie uitoefen oor die ernstigste internasionale misdade, tewete oorlogsmisdade, volksmoord en misdade teen die mensdom. Hierdie tesis fokus op die probleme rondom die toelaatbaarheid van 'n saak voor die ISH. Hierdie ontleding het basies twee bene: jurisdiksie en komplementariteit. Die jurisdiksie van die ISH word in historiese en teoretiese konteks ontleed. Dit behels 'n oorsig van die internasionale tribunale sedert die Eerste Wêreldoorlog, en meer spesifiek die impak wat hierdie tribunale op die ontwikkeling van jurisdiksie in die internasionale strafreg gehad het. In die tweede plek word jurisdiksie ontleed aan die hand van die spesifieke bepalings van die Statuut van Rome. Hierdie ontleding behels 'n gedetaileerde ontleding van al die bepalings van die Statuut van Rome wat 'n impak het op die uitoefening van die ISH se jurisdiksie. Die verhouding tussen die ISH en nasionale howe is 'n komplekse verhouding, gebaseer op 'n kompromie wat by die Rome Konferensie van 1998 aangegaan is. Die beginselonderliggend aan hierdie verhouding staan bekend as "komplementariteit". Dit beteken dat die ISH slegs sy jurisdiksie sal uitoefen indien 'n nasionale hof "onwillig" of "nie in staat is" om jurisdiksie uit te oefen nie. 'n Gedetaileerde ontleding van die verskillende bepalings van die Statuut van Rome, sowel as verwysings na ander internasionale tribunale, dien om die impak van komplementariteit op die omvang van die ISH se jurisdiksie, te ontleed. Ten slotte word sekere voorstelle aangaande die toelaatbaarheid van sake en die verhouding tussen die ISH en nasionale howe gemaak.

This thesis sets out to provide a deep analysis of the mechanisms for review of convictions in New Zealand and England after initial appeal rights are exhausted, and to identify the key areas of similarity and difference between these systems, the reasons for these differences, and their implications. The appeal systems in each jurisdiction are briefly examined, alongside the pressures and restrictions on their functioning. Particular attention is paid to the options for appeal out of time, and for revisiting appeal decisions if new material comes to light. The main discussion is of the specialist procedures for review of suspect convictions in each jurisdiction: the Royal Prerogative of Mercy process carried out by the New Zealand Ministry of Justice and the work of the English Criminal Cases Review Commission. This discussion presents the results of empirical research carried out by the author utilising the files of each of these bodies. It investigates the legal context in which each body functions, and provides an account of how each body functions in practice, by examining the circumstances in which each body will contemplate referring a matter back to an appeal court and the means by which a determination is made as to whether to do so in an individual case. In addition it examines the various factors (legal and non-legal) which impact on their work. Finally, the key features of the two systems are contrasted, with a discussion of the areas of similarity and difference, as well as the possible implications of these, in particular for reform of the New Zealand processes.

La sauvegarde des intérêts de la société implique une répression nécessaire mais aussi efficace. Cette dernière ne peut être pourvue que par une recherche efficiente de preuves relatives à la commission d’une infraction afin d’en connaître l’auteur. Tel est l’enjeu du procès pénal. Cependant, si la protection de la paix publique autorise et légitime une telle démarche, cette dernière ne peut s’opérer sans limitations aux dépens des droits de l’individu. Aussi, une conciliation doit être établie entre des intérêts apparemment contradictoires. La recherche d’un équilibre entre ces deux intérêts a eu des expressions multiples selon l’évolution législative, cette dernière ayant témoigné d’un balancement perpétuel entre ces impératifs. Il existe des situations de fait dans lesquelles il est nécessaire que les représentants de la justice réagissent. Ainsi se trouve justifié le recours à un corps de règles spécifiques grâce auquel la réponse pénale peut s’accomplir avec un minimum d’entrave. Le renforcement de la police judiciaire et la simplification procédurale, pour ne citer que ceux-là, semblent donc pleinement justifiés. Cependant, il est permis de se demander si l’accroissement du rôle des organes de la procédure ne doive pas être entouré de limites devant faire en sorte que l’objectif du législateur, et seulement cet objectif soit atteint. A l’occasion d’une réflexion globale de la place de la personne poursuivie pendant le procès pénal, cette étude conduit d’abord à s’interroger sur la portée des diverses réformes, puis sur le rôle de plus en plus accru des organes de la procédure, afin de constituer en parallèle une dynamique possible de l’accroissement des droits préexistants, voire la création de droits de la défense nouveaux. Le jeu de pouvoirs et de droits qui profile le procès, doit s’effacer sous l’influence de la Convention européenne des droits de l’homme pour laisser apparaître un procès pénal contradictoire. Simplement contradictoire, mais pleinement contradictoire. / Safeguarding the interests of society implies a necessary but also effective enforcement. The latter can be provided efficiently by a search of evidence relating to the commission of an offense in order to know the author. This is the issue of criminal proceeding. However, if the protection of public peace authorizes and legitimizes this approach, the latter can not happen without limitations at the expense of individual rights. Therefore, a compromise must be made between apparently contradictory interests. Finding a balance between these two interests has had multiple expressions by legislative developments, the latter has shown a constant swing between these imperatives. There are situations in which it is necessary that justice officials respond. Thus, is justified the use of a body of specific rules by which the criminal justice response can be accomplished with minimal interference. The strengthening of the judicial police and procedural simplification, to name but a few, seem to be fully justified. However, it is reasonable to ask whether the increased role of the organs of the procedure should not be surrounded by limits to ensure that parliament’s objective, and only that objective. On the occasion of a comprehensive reflection of the place of the defendant during the criminal trial, this study leads first to question the scope of various reforms and the role of increasingly enhanced organs the procedure to be parallel dynamics can increase the pre-existing rights or create new rights of defense. The set of powers and rights which profiles the trial to give way under influence of the European Convention on Human Rights to reveal an adversarial criminal trial. Simply contradictory, but fully contradictory.

Research indicates that states have implemented juvenile justice reforms to enact harsher punishments, to transfer greater numbers and younger juvenile offenders to adult criminal court, and to restrict discretion of the juvenile court judges. Social science studies have found that harsher punishments, transfers to adult criminal court and other measures do not work, but that comprehensive approaches which address the numerous major factors contributing to juvenile offending have been successful. This study examined the legal status of the juvenile justice system by focusing upon ten diverse sample states and analyzed the social science research on factors contributing to juvenile offending and on prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation approaches. The study was accomplished by legal research, qualitative social science research, and analysis of both. Findings indicated: a) state statutes require and allow adult punishment of juvenile offenders, transfer of juvenile offenders to adult criminal court, and direct filing of charges against juveniles in adult criminal court; most states begin these proceedings at age 14, some have no age minimum; b) social science research indicates numerous factors contribute to juvenile offending with most of the factors categorized into the major factors of early antisocial behavior, deviant peers, parents and family, sociomoral reasoning, biological factors, and violence which interact with each other creating a complicated web; and c) prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation efforts should be comprehensive, multidimensional and multimodal addressing the interacting major factors contributing to juvenile offending and the needs of the juvenile, the family, and the home environment. Implications include the need for legislators to access the social science research to craft legislation and programs which are effective. Suggestions for improvement include collaboration within communities and with knowledgeable and committed social science professionals and educators. Areas suggested for further research include education of the public, the media, and stakeholders; long term follow-up on promising programs; design and improvements in approaches based upon the social science research; meeting the needs of the juvenile, the family, and the home environment; and study of how the factors may differ for disabled juveniles.

Support de la nouvelle société de l’information et de la communication, outil de travail mais également de loisir, le numérique est « partout ». Devenu la mémoire virtuelle de l’homme, le « numérique », constitue un terrain d’investigation privilégié, une source d’informations intarissable. Le principe de la liberté des preuves en procédure pénale a offert au numérique la possibilité de jouer un rôle majeur : parfois preuve de l’infraction, de son imputabilité à un auteur et/ou de son identité, il est devenu incontournable. Ce constat est toutefois limité, ce principe ne signifiant pas que l’on puisse agir de n’importe quelle manière, à sa guise quels que soient le lieu et l’heure ; la preuve numérique devant être recherchée et recueillie dans les règles de l’administration de la preuve. Soumise à l’intime conviction du juge, la donnée numérique devra également revêtir des garanties d’intégrité et de fiabilité, avant d’être considérée comme une « preuve ». En définitive, ces observations imposent que, les caractères généraux de la preuve numérique et son rôle probatoire attendu soient étudiés afin d’envisager comment cette nouvelle preuve se confronte au régime probatoire pénal / As a medium of the new society of information and communication and as a tool used both for work and play, digital technology has become ubiquitous. It has become man's virtual memory and represents a preferred field for investigation, an inexhaustible source of information. The principle of freedom of evidence in criminal law has allowed digital technology to play a major role : sometimes as evidence of infringement, of its author's imputability and/or identity, it has become inescapable. This general assessment is however limited, as it does not mean that any action can be taken anyhow, whatever the place or time ; digital evidence must indeed be searched for and collected within the rules governing it. Being subjected to the judge's inner conviction, the digital data will also have to offer guarantees of integrity and reliability before being considered as evidence on balance, these observations require that the general characteristics and expected role of digital evidence should be studied in order to examine how this new kind of evidence can be confronted with the system of evidence in criminal law