As organizations strengthen their presence overseas, the number of expatriates is increasing rapidly (Armstrong, & Li, in press; Brookfield Global Relocation Services, 2015). Expatriates are often used by multinational corporations (MNCs) for knowledge sharing (Fang, Jiang, Makino, & Beamish, 2010; Hocking, Brown, & Harzing, 2004). Knowledge sharing refers to a relational act based on a sender-receiver relationship which involves sending one's knowledge to another as well as receiving another's knowledge (Foss, Minbaeva, Pedersen, & Reinholt, 2009). Effective knowledge sharing is key for MNCs in order to create and sustain competitive advantage (Jensen & Szulanski, 2004; Schwaer, Biemann, & Voelpel, 2012; Wang & Noe, 2010). Given its relevance, organizations invest significant amounts of resources in the development of knowledge-management systems and provide employees with incentives to encourage knowledge sharing (Cabrera, Collins, & Salgado, 2006). MNCs however often face difficulties in encouraging employees to share their knowledge (Cabrera & Cabrera, 2002, 2005) and growing evidence suggests that in international contexts employees are even more reluctant to share their knowledge due to cultural, nationality, ethnicity and linguistic barriers (Gilson, Lim, Luciano, & Choi, 2013; Mäkelä, Andersson, & Seppälä, 2012). It is therefore critical to identify how to enhance knowledge sharing between expatriates and host country national (HCN) colleagues despite the cultural, linguistic, nationality, and ethnicity barriers they may experience when working together (Peltokorpi & Clausen, 2011). The first aim of this dissertation was therefore to identify how to enhance knowledge sharing between expatriates and HCNs. Survey data was collected from 84 expatriate-HCN dyads working in 31 different host countries in all parts of the world. Drawing upon the supplementary person-person (P-P) fit literature, a specific type of person-environment (P-E) fit, it was demonstrated that when expatriates perceive high similarity between themselves and their HCN colleague in terms of deep-level characteristics such as values, personality, goals, and abilities (i.e. high P-P fit) they are more likely to engage in information elaboration which in turn facilitates knowledge sharing. Interpersonal citizenship behaviour was identified as a moderator which increased information elaboration and knowledge sharing even when expatriates perceived low deep-level similarity between themselves and their HCN colleague (i.e. low P-P fit). Furthermore, we do not know what types of knowledge expatriates share with their HCN colleagues (Armstrong & Li, in press) despite the fact that knowledge is often considered as an organization's most important resource (Zander & Kogut, 1995). The second aim of this dissertation was therefore to systematically examine what types of knowledge expatriates share with their HCN colleagues. Survey data was collected from 197 expatriates working in 52 different host countries in all parts of the world. By means of a qualitative content analysis of written descriptions regarding the types of knowledge shared, a three dimensional typology of expatriate knowledge sharing was constructed which identifies the full range of knowledge types shared by expatriates. Three types of knowledge were identified: regulative knowledge, normative knowledge, and cultural-cognitive knowledge, each consisting of several subtypes. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Public figures have offered more public apologies since the past two decades. However, very little research efforts have been made to study the use of apology strategies in public apologies. This study aims to find out how Chinese and English public figures use apology strategies to publicly apologize, and highlight the similarities and differences in their use of apology strategies. This study used a modified model that was based on Cohen & Olshtain (1981), Olshtain & Cohen (1983), and Blum-Kulka et al. (1989) and identified a total of 11 apology strategies. 8 Chinese and 8 English public apologies over infidelity were collected and analyzed using the model and the use of apology strategies was compiled. It was found that, in general, the Chinese subjects used apology strategies more often than the English subjects. The most frequently used and least frequently used strategies were the same for both groups of data, which were accepting the blame and expressing a lack of intent respectively. One of the significant differences was found in the preference of IFIDs where the Chinese data preferred an expression of apology while the English data preferred an expression of regret. It was also found that 3 of the Chinese apologies used the strategies expressing self-dificiency and offering an explanation or account together. Since the latter was found to be inappropriate in the case of apologizing over infidelity, the concurrent use of these 2 Strategies might be a unique feature of Chinese public apology. Since this study is a pioneering attempt to study the use of apology strategies in public apologies, further research efforts are much encouraged. It is hoped that this study could serves as a reference for further studies on apology strategies in public apology.

International marketing activities have a great impact on the prosperity and competitiveness of multinational companies (Akgün, Keskin, & Ayar, 2014). That is why the design of marketing activities is especially important. Researchers claim for cultural sensitivity. According to their work, culture has a significant influence on marketing content which needs to be culturally adapted (Kaur & Chawla, 2016). Based on these assumptions the present study aims to discuss the concepts of culture in relation to standardization and adaptation of IKEA’s advertising content published in Sweden and Japan. The study is focused on IKEA since the company is known to implement a standardized marketing approach with only minor cultural adaptations (Burt, Johansson, & Thelander, 2011).   To accomplish that goal a multimodal critical discourse analysis is applied. The analysis seeks to identify the similarities and differences in IKEA’s video advertisements published in Sweden and Japan to determine how the company promotes its products. The analysis is limited to visual semiotic choices. The interpretation of the results is linked to the findings of Hofstede’s theory of cultural dimensions: Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism versus Collectivism, Masculinity versus Femininity, Long- and Short-Term Orientation and Indulgence versus Restraint. The study revealed that signs for both concepts standardization and adaptation were visible in IKEA’s advertisements. Especially the analysis of the Japanese sample has shown that IKEA follows a standardized marketing approach when it comes to communicating the company’s core values such as gender equality. This value was frequently depicted in the Japanese advertisements where gender division usually prevails. However, less significant aspects such as those concerning the outer appearance of the actors were culturally adapted. These findings underline a dialectical relationship between culture and advertising content. Leading theoretical frameworks lag to take into account this continuous discourse that emphasizes the importance to implement the perspective of a changing environment in further theoretical contributions.

The present study attempted a cross-cultural investigation of ethnic and national stereotypes in South Africa, a land inhabited by a heterogeneous population. In this country, real or imagined differences due to racial characteristics profoundly influence social interaction. Moreover, such differences are entrenched and underscored by the prevailing legal system while supplying the rationale for many actions of the goverru:tent in power. On the basis of relevant literature it was assumed that differentiation between stereotypes would be based mainly on colour, but that further distinctive differentiations would be present inside the ensuing major groupings ("White and "Non-White"). It was furthermore attempted to show that various groups differed significantly in their judgment of an ethnic stereotype only if they had a dissimilar relationship with the group to be judged. Altogether 760 subjects were tested. These belonged to the six major ethnic and cultural groups in South Africa (Africans, Afrikaners, Coloureds, English-speaking White Gentiles, Indians, and Jews). They were all asked to judge each one of ten concepts by means of the semantic differential technique, which consisted of twenty adjective pairs. Six of these concepts were the names of the South African groups mentioned above, while another three concepts represented the names of groups outside South Africa ("the Americans", "the Germans", and "the Russians") which play an important role in the thinking of South Africans. Finally, the subjects were asked to rate themselves ("Me"- concept). For the sake of better comparison, only first-year students were tested at various universities. The results were analyzed with the aid of a computer (the ICT computers at the University of Cape Town and at Rhodes University). Since a cross-cultural study rests on the theoretical assumption that any tests used for the purpose of comparison are reliable and valid in all cultures to be investigated, a few additional questions had to be asked. The checks undertaken confirmed that in the present study:- 1) The motivation of the subjects as well as their comprehension of the test's basic aims did not differ to any great extent. 2) The six groups did not differ appreciably as regards the social desirability of adjectives used, the semantic structure of the adjective pairs, and the range of scores on the adjective pairs. Furthermore, it was established that male-female differences in attitudes in each of the six groups tested were negligible. The stereotypes were compared with each other inside every one of the groups tested, as well as being compared between all the groups. These comparisons were carried out on the single adjective pairs separately (by means of the Sign Test and the Median Test), and then undertaken in the context of the factorial structure of the concepts. The major results showed that:- 1. The 'colour line' is an important criterion of evaluation in all groups but the Coloureds and the Jews. a) Apart from a 'Black Factor', on which the concepts "the Africans" and "the Coloureds" obtained high loadings, there appeared to be two factors dealing with the evaluation of the White groups. b) The evaluation of the 'Black Factor' by the African subjects was much more positive than the 'Black Factor' found in other groups. c) The Indian subjects did not regard themselves as belonging to the ' Non-Whites' ; neither were they regarded as such by the other subjects tested. 2. The criterion of colour was of less importance in the Coloured and Jewish groups tested. 3. The Jewish subjects appeared to possess the most differentiated stereotype structure, since, in their case, there were four, instead of the usual three factors to be extracted. Moreover, they tended to regard the Non-'White groups more positively than did the other two White groups. 4. The Afrikaans subjects held the most negative opinion of "the Africans"; conversely, "the Afrikaners" were also rejected more strongly than the English-speaking Whites by the Non-Whites tested. 5. Of all groups rated, "the Americans" were the most liked. 6. The stereotypes of "the Russians" and "the Germans" were fairly similar, except in the case of the Afrikaans subjects, who had an exceptionally positive regard for "the Germans". 1. Ratings of the subjects' own group were generally very much more positive than the ratings of the same group by members of other groups, except in the case of the English-speaking White Gentiles. 8. When any two groups rated a concept differently, this could generally be traced back to, on the one hand, differences in the relationships between each one of the judging groups, and, on the other, the group being judged. In conclusion it can be stated that differences between the groups as regards any one stereotype were generally smaller than the differences between the stereotypes of different concepts as held by any one group tested. Where no special relationships existed between a judging group and one being judged, ethnic and national stereotypes tended to be relatively similar in the various cultures and sub-cultures investigated.

O objetivo principal desta tese foi testar um modelo teórico que pudesse relacionar os construtos atitude, norma subjetiva, hábito e intenção de comportamento no consumo de carne bovina. Também se propôs uma análise do impacto das emoções antecipadas (positivas e negativas), do grau de envolvimento e de diferenças culturais como variáveis moderadoras no modelo. Buscou-se ainda contribuir com a Teoria do Comportamento Planejado (Theory of Planned Bahviour – TPB, AJZEN, 1985, 1988, 1991) em estudos sobre o consumo de alimentos pela inclusão do construto hábito como um regressor independente no modelo (VERPLANKEN, 1998) e pela exclusão do construto controle percebido de comportamento (BREDAHL; GRUNERT, 1997; TOWLER; SHEPHERD, 1991/1992). Até recentemente os alimentos eram considerados simplesmente commodities, e seu estudo na área de marketing foi negligenciado por muitos anos. A abertura global dos mercados e o surgimento de novos padrões de consumo mudaram esta realidade, trazendo para a área do comportamento do consumidor tão importante discussão. No entanto, apesar da importância do agronegócio, estudos relacionando hábitos, emoções antecipadas, nível de envolvimento, cultura, atitudes, intenção e comportamento de consumo de produtos alimentares ainda são escassos no Brasil, e, portanto, totalmente abertos à exploração. Os construtos foram analisados como um modelo teórico quantitativo e a Modelagem em Equações Estruturais (MEE) foi utilizada para o cálculo dos parâmetros e teste das hipóteses (ARBUCKLE, 1999). O pré-teste foi realizado na Escócia e coleta de dados ocorreu no Brasil, na Holanda e na Austrália em 2005 e 2006. Foram obtidos 816 questionários válidos nas surveys realizadas, sendo que 400 casos foram usados para a análise cross-cultural multivariada dos dados. Os resultados obtidos confirmaram a relação existente, direta e estatisticamente significante entre os construtos atitude, hábito e norma subjetiva com o comportamento de consumo de carne bovina. No entanto, o papel mediador da intenção de comportamento entre a atitude e a norma subjetiva com o comportamento, postulado pela TPB, não foi confirmado. Uma relação direta, do hábito para atitude também foi um achado teórico relevante. A inclusão de hábito como uma extensão à TPB foi considerada apropriada, pois ajudou a explicar o comportamento de consumo de carne bovina. Os consumidores de Porto Alegre e da Austrália apresentaram a relação entre a atitude e comportamento mais positiva e níveis de envolvimento mais altos com carne bovina do que os consumidores de São Paulo e Holanda. As emoções antecipadas também foram consideradas variáveis moderadoras satisfatórias, tendo em vista que os grupos com expectativas emocionais (positivas e negativas) mais altas mostraram relações mais fortes e significativas no modelo. Os grupos que sofreram menor impacto das variáveis moderadoras emoções antecipadas (positivas e negativas) demonstraram um padrão de consumo menos cognitivo, mais habitual, e mais influenciável pelas normas subjetivas. Sob o ponto de vista gerencial, as cadeias produtivas de carne bovina no Brasil, Holanda e Austrália se beneficiarão dos resultados, pois campanhas e esforços de marketing poderão ser direcionados a grupos específicos de consumidores, com base no seu comportamento de consumo. Vantagens competitivas poderão ser alcançadas por todos os elos da cadeia pela orientação para o mercado e satisfação das demandas dos consumidores a partir do conhecimento gerado. / The main objective of this thesis was to test a theoretical model relating attitude, subjective norm, habit and behaviour intention in beef consumption. We also proposed to analyze the impact of anticipated emotions (positive and negative), degree of involvement and cultural differences as moderator variables in the model. The author aimed to contribute to the Theory of Planned Behaviour - TPB (AJZEN, 1985, 1988, 1991) in food consumption through the inclusion of habit as an independent regressor in that model (Verplanken, 1998) and exclusion of perceived behaviour control (BREDAHL; GRUNERT, 1997; TOWLER;SHEPHERD, 1991/1992). Until recently food was regarded as a commodity and marketing scholars neglected its study for many years. Although, with the global opening of markets and new consumption patterns, this reality changed, bringing up to the study of consumer behaviour such important discussion. Amazingly, in spite of the importance of the agribusiness sector, studies relating food consumption, habits, anticipated emotions, involvement, culture, attitudes and behaviour intention are scarce in Brazil, and therefore, totally open to exploration. The constructs were presented as a theoretical quantitative model and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to estimate parameters and test the hypotheses (ARBUCKLE, 1999). A pre-test was held in Scotland and data collection took place in Brazil, in The Netherlands and in Australia during 2005 and 2006. 816 valid questionnaires were obtained from the surveys and 400 cases were used on the cross-cultural multivariate analysis. Results obtained from this study confirmed most of the hypothesized relations. The authors confirmed the direct, statiscally significant effect of attitude, habit and subjective norm on consumption behaviour. The mediating role of behavioral intention from attitude and subjective norm to consumption behaviour, by contrast, was not confirmed, as postulated by the TPB. A direct relation, from habit to attitude was also found significant. The inclusion of habit as a TPB extension was considered appropriated, helping to explain beef consumption behavior. Consumers from Porto Alegre and Australia confirmed to have stronger relation from attitude to behavior and to have higher degrees of involvement with beef than consumers from São Paulo and The Netherlands. Anticipated emotions were also considered satisfactory moderator variables based on the findings that groups with higher emotional expectations showed stronger relationships in the model. Groups presenting a lower moderating impact were found to show a less cognitive, more habitual consumption pattern, and yet more susceptible to subjective norms influence. From a managerial perspective, Brazilian, European and Australian beef sector will benefit from the results, since marketing campaigns and sales efforts can be addressed to specific groups of consumers, based on their behaviour trends. The entire beef productive chain can improve its competitive advantage via consumer-driven or market-oriented actions.

A presente tese de doutorado teve por objetivo traduzir, adaptar e validar para o contexto brasileiro o Questionário de Comportamentos Agressivos e Reativos entre Pares (Q-CARP), instrumento italiano, de autorrelato, empiricamente baseado, constituído por duas escalas independentes. A primeira escala avalia o comportamento agressivo infantil e a segunda escala avalia diferentes reações frente à agressão entre pares. Também foi objetivo deste estudo, a validação transcultural do instrumento entre Itália e Brasil. O estudo de validação do instrumento no Brasil contou com a participação de 727 crianças (52% meninos), de 8 a 13 anos, estudantes do ensino fundamental de escolas públicas e privadas do Rio Grande do Sul. Análises fatoriais exploratórias e confirmatórias foram conduzidas para testar a estrutura do instrumento, a qual foi consistente com o instrumento original, apresentando uma solução unifatorial para a primeira escala (Escala de Comportamentos Agressivos – ECA) e uma solução de três fatores (Reação Agressiva – RA; Busca de Apoio – BA; Reação Internalizada – RI) para a segunda escala (Escala de Comportamentos Reativos – ERA). Análises de validade convergente e análises multivariadas por sexo e idade também foram conduzidas. Os resultados indicaram que o Q-CARP apresenta boas propriedades psicométricas e satisfatórias evidências de validade e de fidedignidade, configurando-se como um instrumento útil para avaliação dos comportamentos agressivos bem como da reação da criança frente à agressão de seus pares. O estudo de validação transcultural contou com a participação de 587 crianças italianas, de 6 a 11 anos (52% meninos), além das 727 crianças brasileiras. As análises confirmatórias multigrupos atestaram a invariância do instrumento, indicando que o Q-CARP é uma medida válida para avaliar os comportamentos agressivos e reações frente à agressão em ambos os contextos (brasileiro e italiano). Uma MANCOVA foi realizada para avaliar diferenças em meninos e meninas e em crianças brasileiras e italianas para cada uma das escalas do Q-CARP. Meninos apresentaram maior nível que as meninas na ECA e também apresentaram maiores médias no fator RA da ERA. Já as meninas apresentaram maiores níveis para o fator BA e para fator RI da ERA. Em relação à comparação entre países, crianças italianas apresentaram maiores médias para a ECA e crianças brasileiras maiores médias para RI. Os resultados são discutidos à luz da literatura. / The present doctoral dissertation aimed to translate, adapt and validate to the Brazilian context the Peer Aggressive and Reactive Behaviors Questionnaire (PARB-Q), an Italian self-report and empirically based instrument, composed by two independent scales. The first scale assesses child aggressive behavior, whereas the second scale evaluates different reactions to peer aggression. It was also conducted a cross-cultural validation of the PARB-Q between Italy and Brazil. Participants of the Brazilian validation study were 727 children (52% boys), ranging from 8 to 13 years old, students of public and private elementary schools of the Rio Grande do Sul State. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted in order to verify the structure of the PARB-Q, which was consistent with the original instrument, resulting in a one-factor solution for the first scale (Peer Aggression - PA) and a three-factor solution (Reactive Aggression – RA, Seeking Teacher Support – STS and Internalizing Reaction - IR) for the second scale (Reaction to Peer Aggression Scale - RPA). Convergent validity analysis and multivariate analysis by sex and age were also performed. The results indicated that the PARB-Q presented good psychometric properties and satisfactory evidence of validity and reliability. The PARB-Q was configured as a useful tool to evaluate child aggressive behavior and child's response to peer aggression. Participants of the cross-cultural validation study were 587 Italian and 727 Brazilian students of elementary public schools. Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses attested full measurement invariance of the instrument, indicating that the PARB-Q is a valid measure to assess the child aggressive behavior and responses to peer aggression in both Brazilian and Italian contexts. A MANCOVA (using age as a co-variable) was performed to assess differences in boys and girls and in Brazilian and Italian children for each of the PARB-Q scales. Boys showed higher levels than girls in the PA scale and also presented higher levels in the RA factor of the RPA scale. Girls presented higher levels of the STS and IR factors of the RPA scale. Regarding cross-country comparisons, Italian children presented higher levels in the PA scale whereas Brazilian children presented higher levels in the IR factor. The results are discussed in light of the literature.

La présente thèse examine la capacité des enfants âgés de huit à dix ans à produire des inférences sur l’état émotionnel du protagoniste au moment même où ils découvrent l’histoire (i.e., évaluation en temps réel). Quatre objectifs sont visés. Premièrement, la question de la spécificité des inférences émotionnelles produites est posée et appréhendée à partir de deux types de tâches déjà utilisées et validées chez l’adulte, à savoir une tâche de complètement et une tâche de choix multiples. Pour la tâche de complètement, les enfants sont invités à désigner par écrit l’émotion que pourrait ressentir le personnage à ce moment précis de l’histoire alors que pour la tâche de choix multiples ils doivent sélectionner parmi une liste d’émotions celle qui correspond le mieux à la situation décrite. Deuxièmement, outre les apports méthodologiques retirés de la comparaison de ces deux tâches, cette thèse interroge le développement des connaissances émotionnelles en explorant tant leur maîtrise des émotions de base que des émotions sociales. Troisièmement, s’agissant d’étudier les inférences émotionnelles élaborées en situation d’écoute d’histoires, l’expressivité du narrateur est considérée avec l’idée qu’une prosodie marquée pourrait favoriser l’identification des émotions du personnage. Enfin, dans l’optique d’ouvrir ce travail à une comparaison interculturelle, la capacité des enfants à inférer l’émotion du personnage à partir de textes de littérature jeunesse a été envisagée tant en France qu’à l’Ile Maurice. Au regard de ces différents objectifs, les retombées des études menées sont de deux ordres : méthodologique et théorique. La présente thèse permet ainsi d’alimenter la réflexion tant du point de vue des connaissances scientifiques actuellement disponibles sur ce sujet dans le domaine de la psychologie que du point de vue des pratiques pédagogiques à privilégier dans le domaine de l’éducation. / This thesis examines the ability of children aged eight to ten years to produce inferences about the emotional state of the protagonist while they discover the story (i.e., online evaluation). Four main objectives have to be distinguished. First, the specificity of the emotional inferences children produced is examined through two types of tasks already used and validated in adults, namely a completion task and a multiple-choice task. Regarding the completion task, children are invited to write down the emotion the character is supposed to feel at this moment of the story. For the multiple-choice task, they have to select from a list of emotional labels the one that best fits the situation described. Secondly, this thesis provides a relevant framework to assess the development of children’s emotional knowledge by considering their ability to infer both basic emotions and social emotions. Thirdly, our purpose is to highlight that the expressivity of the narrator can be of help in inferring the character’s emotions. Finally, in order to open this work to an intercultural comparison, children’s ability to infer the emotion of the character has been considered both in France and in Mauritius. In view of these different objectives, the series of studies we carried address both methodological and theoretical issues. Overall, the present thesis provides additional data to the current state of knowledge in psychology about children’s ability to represent the character’s emotional state and underlines related pedagogical contributions to reinforce practices in the field of education.

Those who take the Great Commission of Christ seriously realise that enlarging today's mission force is crucial. The Two-thirds World church is in a prime position to meet the need. Cross-cultural mission training would greatly enhance and accelerate the fulfilling of Christ's final mandate to the Church. As founding director of Missions Exposure and Training (MET), a Christian ministry located in Pretoria, South Africa, the author of the thesis lays out the details of the programme for the reader. MET is the case study being considered, with particular emphasis placed on Missionary Candidate School (MCS), the backbone of MET. Before MET is introduced, the thesis begins with the challenge facing the universal Church today: the need to strengthen and enlarge the current mission force. The theological implications of Jesus Christ's mandate to the Church, the missionary purpose of the Church, as well as eschatological concerns build a strong argument for the need of a larger mission force. Demographic changes taking place within the Church mean that Two-thirds World Christians should be considered as a primary resource for cross-cultural mission endeavours. To maximise the potential of the new recruits, which the writer refers to as 'missionary candidates,' further discussion is given for the need of systematic training and equipping of Two-thirds World missionaries. After describing MET and MCS, the programme is critically evaluated. MCS is proven to be effective in training African men and women for intercultural Christian mission service, and as such it becomes a model worth investigating. The clear findings that result from the candid evaluation, and assessments made in light of current theological and missiological issues, should prove to be beneficial to those developing programmes with the purpose of training and equipping Two-thirds World missionaries. / Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology / D. Th. (Missiology)

The current study investigated how individual level cultural values (horizontal individualism, horizontal collectivism, vertical individualism, vertical collectivism, power distance, masculinity/femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long/short term orientation) relate to the perceived effectiveness of authentic leadership. To ensure cultural diversity, data was collected from participants via Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk).The participant pool included 184 participants from the United States, India, and 10 other countries around the world. Of these, 68 (37%) participants identified themselves as female and 116 (63%) identified themselves as male. In order to provide a sample that is more representative of a working population, all participants were employed for an average of at least 20 hours a week in a workplace outside of the home. Data was collected using an online survey. Participants completed measures for individual level cultural values (Horizontal and Vertical Individualism and Collectivism Scale, and Individual Cultural Value Scale), the perceived effectiveness of authentic leadership (modified Authentic Leadership Questionnaire), and demographics. Participants were compensated $0.65 on average for completing the survey.The perceived effectiveness of authentic leadership was found to have significant positive correlations with horizontal individualism, horizontal collectivism, and long/short term orientation and a negative correlation with power distance and masculinity. In a final hierarchical regression model, age, power distance, long term orientation, and horizontal individualism were found to significantly predict 34% of the variance in perceived effectiveness of authentic leadership. The results help to provide a better understanding of hierarchy perceptions in the workplace. They suggest that individuals who value self-expression, less status differences between leaders and follower, and internal perseverance are more likely to endorse an authentic leadership style as being effective in the workplace. These results imply that congruence between employee and supervisor values may be an important factor in determining whether or not authentic leadership is perceived as being effective in the workplace. Further, managers and organizations may want to consider hiring individuals with cultural values that best fit their own values and leadership style. In the future researchers could investigate individual level cultural values as moderators between leadership and workplace outcomes, such as job satisfaction.

The current Japanese counseling profession is in the process of reforming and uniting the system and training together for counseling and related professions. Supervision is one of significant training piece in this profession; however, its familiarity among Japanese counseling professionals is very unclear. This study explored how Japanese counseling professionals conceptualize the ideal figure of a clinical supervisor based on the identified fundamental elements of clinical supervision in the US. The preliminary analysis indicates that each aspect of the U.S. clinical supervision models might be adoptable to Japanese counseling professionals. Yet the small sample size does not confirm the conceptual framework of the ideal clinical supervisor for Japanese counseling professionals, the main analysis indicated an alternative culturally appropriate conceptual framework. Further research embracing Japanese cultural characteristics and sound ethical manner in the professional counseling and supervisory relationship would enrich the clinical supervision in Japan.