The effect of electromigration on void formation and the failure mechanism of FCBGA packages under a current density of 1*104 A/cm2 and an environmental temperature of 150¢J was investigated. Eight solder/substrate combinations of four lead-free solder systems with two substrates were examined to verify the failure modes. A conservative failure criterion was adopted to define and predict the failure of the package. SEM was employed to observe in situ microstructural changes, IMC growth, and failure modes. All samples exhibited a similar failure, attributed mainly to void occupation along UBM/solder interfaces at the cathode chip side of the bumps with downward electron flow. Voids were initiated at the corner due to current crowding. Two specific void locations were identified at the IMC/solder and UBM/IMC interfaces, and they co-existed in the same specimen but in different bumps. No void coupling mode was found. Since the atom diffusion rate in the solder differs from that in the IMC layer, the voids can be formed between them. A current density of 1*104 A/cm2 was sufficiently high to form a void pattern at the IMC/solder interface. However, the formation of voids at the UBM/IMC interface is generally induced by the consumption of UBM, since the high temperature of 150¢J crucially dominates the void morphology at the UBM/IMC interface. The difference among solder systems did not affect the failure modes nor dominate mechanisms. Two theoretical models based on the experimental results were applied to describe the void formations. They will be more accurate and useful in understanding void formations by further experimental data provided. According to the results of solder bumps with electrons only flowed through Al trace line at die side, it suggested that atoms transport toward the bottom substrate along with the temperature gradient and toward the right corners along with electron flow when electrons flowed through the trace after the resistances of solder joints reaching 120¢H of their initial values. With respect to the differences of substrate surface finishes, more voids appeared at the cathode substrate side of the solders combined with Cu/Ni/Au pad than those combined with Cu-OSP after long-term upward electron stressing. It suggested another possible failure at the substrate side when failure did not occur at the chip side in an EM test.

In recent years, educators and academics have argued that science curricula have become increasingly crowded, rendering it almost impossible for teachers to address the multitude of learning outcomes mandated in any given document (e.g., Fortner, 2001; Hacker, 1997). Unfortunately, an analysis of the research literature has failed to substantiate this claim with empirical evidence. The purpose of this study was to examine changes of British Columbia’s Science 9 and 10 curricula between 1920 and 2014 to determine if curriculum expansion – as an important indicator of an overcrowded curriculum- has happened over time. Additionally, this study investigated the relationship between science curriculum changes and societal and educational values and priorities. The research questions guiding this study were: 1) Have the Science 9 and 10 curricula in British Columbia (BC) expanded over time? That is, has the scope, size and depth of science material to be addressed increased over time? 2) If so, what accounts for this increase over time? 3) If not, what accounts for the claims in the literature that science curricula are increasingly crowded? This study used content analysis to examine, in detail, grade 9 and 10 science curriculum guides issued by BC’s government between 1920 to 2014. Content under examination included program goals and rationale; instructional suggestions; topics; subject matter goals and learning outcomes. Supplementary historical documents (government directives, circulars, newspapers, memos, secondary sources) were also examined in order to situate curricula in appropriate social contexts. Results showed that the only constant attribute of the investigated BC grade 9 and 10 science curricula is change, which is characterized by expansion and continuous reconfiguration of content, persistent attempts to respond to social and educational needs, and constant oscillations between student-centered and subject-centered teaching approaches. This study also illustrates that the crowding of the science curriculum has as much to do with changing educational theories and ideologies as with scientific developments. This study is important in that it fills a significant gap in the research literature. It is the first to address the questions of how and why science curricula have expanded and become more complex over time. Finally, this study is timely in that British Columbia’s government has proposed sweeping changes to current curricula with a broad goal of better preparing learners for demands of the 21st century (BC Ministry of Education [BCMOE], 2012). More specifically, BC’s government has proposed to replace the vast number of curricular learning outcomes with fewer more broadly conceived competencies that would enable learners to probe more deeply into areas of personal interest (BCMOE, 2013). This study provides evidence that such a move would reverse a longstanding trend in the opposite direction. / Graduate

Bakgrund: Långa väntetider och vistelsetider på akutmottagningarna i Sverige är ett välkänt och ökande problem som speglar patientflödet och belastningen på akutmottagningen och påverkar både sjuksköterskans arbetsmiljö och patientsäkerheten. Akutsjuksköterskan har som en del i sin kompetens att se till att rätt patient får rätt vård, av rätt kvalitet, på rätt nivå, på rätt plats, vid rätt tidpunkt, till rätt kostnad. Syfte: Syftet med studien var att undersöka sjuksköterskors uppfattning om vad som påverkar patientflödet på akutmottagningen. Metod: En kvalitativ enkätstudie där resultaten analyserats med hjälp av kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Resultat: Tre teman som sjuksköterskorna upplevde påverkade patientflödet på akutmottagningen framkom: Tillgång – brist på läkare, provsvar, röntgen och vårdplatser, där tillgång underlättade patientflödet och brist hindrade patientflödet; kompetens – inkompetens som speglar hur vårdpersonalens kunskapsnivå, kommunikation och beslutsförmåga påverkade patientflödet; och aktivitet – väntan som visade hur patienterna väntade på aktiviteter som skulle utföras av någon annan medan sjuksköterskorna väntade samtidigt som de var upptagna med annat och blev avbrutna i dessa aktiviteter. Slutsats: För att förbättra patientflödena på akutmottagningen krävs ett perspektiv som inkluderar alla delar av vården som är involverade i den akuta patientens flöde, även delar utanför akutmottagningen. Ett förbättrat patientflödet skulle även förbättra patientsäkerheten.

Mit dem in §18 des Tarifvertrags für den öffentlichen Dienst (TVöD) festgeschriebenen Leistungsentgelt soll u.a. die Motivation der Mitarbeiterinnen und Mitarbeiter im öffentlichen Dienst gesteigert werden. Eine motivationssteigernde Wirkung wird jedoch von Seiten der Motivationsforschung bestritten. Sie geht im Gegenteil davon aus, dass eine leistungsorientierte Bezahlung (LOB) zu einer Verdrängung der intrinsischen Motivation (Crowding-Out Effekt) führen kann. Mithilfe eines empirischen Tests der Motivation Crowding Theorie gelangt diese Arbeit zu einem differenzierteren Urteil. Es wird gezeigt, dass im Beispiel der Kreisverwaltung Potsdam Mittelmark die subjektive Wahrnehmung der LOB durch den einzelnen Beschäftigten darüber entscheidet, ob dessen Motivation verstärkt oder verdrängt wird. Jene Beschäftigten, die sich durch die LOB kontrolliert fühlen, weisen eine signifikant geringere PSM und intrinsische Motivation als diejenigen auf, die die LOB als fördernd wahrnehmen. Als zentraler Faktor für das Urteil der Beschäftigten wird die wahrgenommene Fairness des Systems identifiziert. / By means of performance-related pay (PRP), which is laid down in §18 of the “Public Sector Collective Agreement” (TVöD), the motivation of public employees should be increased. However, motivational research contests the motivation-increasing effect. In contrast, it is assumed that performance-related pay may crowd-out the intrinsic motivation (Crowding-Out Effect). While conducting an empirical test of the Motivation Crowding Theory, this paper offers a more differentiated view. It is shown that, in the case of the local administration of Potsdam-Mittelmark, the subjective perception by the individual worker will decide on whether his or her motivation is crowded-in or crowded-out. Those who feel controlled by the PRP-system show a significant lower PSM and intrinsic motivation than those who perceive it as supportive. The fairness of the system is discovered as being the central factor affecting the judgement by the workers.

This study investigates the impact of crowding on frontline service employees. In particular, this study examines how customer crowding affects frontline service employees’ stress, emotions, job performance, and displayed emotions. This study pioneers a new avenue by investigating employee (as opposed to consumer) reactions to customer crowding and addressing the gap in the literature on employees’ interaction with the physical environment. The underlying theoretical framework of the study is rooted in Lazarus’s (1966; 1991) model that links appraisal, emotional response, and coping in a sequential process. Applying theory to the context issue of customer crowding, the major constructs for this study are determined as: 1)the stressor (customer crowding), (2)appraisal,(3) emotions, (4)coping, and (5)service quality outcomes. The four major areas investigated in this study are: (1)stress levels of FSE due to customer crowding, (2)their emotions in the crowded service environment, (3)coping strategies they use under these circumstances, and(4)effects of such coping strategies on job performance and displayed emotions. A laboratory experiment is conducted with 200 frontline service employees where human density (a precursor to crowding)is manipulated via scenarios and videos. Analyzing the data via ANOVA, simple regression, and multiple regression, the results showed: (1)a positive relationship between crowding and stress, (2)an inverse relationship between positive emotions and stress, (3)a positive relationship between stress and negative emotions, (4) a negative impact of escape and confrontive coping strategies on service quality outcomes, and (5) a positive impact of distancing and social support on service quality outcomes. The contributions of the study are that: (1)it pioneers a new research avenue which opens avenues for future research, (2)it goes beyond the traditional Stimulus-Organism-Response approach to person-environment interaction and expands the domain of inquiry by incorporating the Lazarus transactional theory in the study of person-environment interaction, and (3)it provides a number of managerial implications regarding design of servicescapes to reduce the experience of crowding and training of frontline service employees on successful coping strategies.

Thesis (Ed. D.)--Illinois State University, 1980. / Title from title page screen, viewed March 11, 2005. Dissertation Committee: Max R. Rennels (chair), Melvin Goldstein, Susan Amster, George Barford, Gary Weede. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 126-130) and abstract. Also available in print.

SAMMANFATTNING En akutmottagning är en organisation uppbyggd för att ta hand om den akut sjuka patienten, vårda, stabilisera dennes tillstånd, behandla och bedriva kvalitativ vård i det akuta skedet. En trend ses världen över med ett ökat patientinflöde till våra akutmottagningar, vilket ställer högre krav på organisationen. Crowding är ett uttryck som beskriver en situation på akutmottagningar vilken innebär att antalet patienter överstiger det maximala antal som verksamheten kan hantera. Crowding behöver nödvändigtvis inte enbart vara högt patientantal utan beskrivs även som vårdtyngd, överbeläggning och arbetsbelastning. Befintliga resurser räcker ej till för att möta det ökade behovet av vård. Detta kan leda till ett sämre patientflöde, längre vårdtider på akutmottagning samt högre arbetsbelastning på akutmottagningen. Syfte med denna studie var att belysa sjuksköterskans upplevelse av och vid crowding på akutmottagningen. Den metod som valdes var en litteraturöversikt. Studier med kvalitativ, kvantitativ och mixad metod inkluderades. Resultatet bygger på 18 vetenskapliga artiklar, publicerade mellan 2007- 2017, insamlade från databaserna CINAHL Complete, PubMed och Google Scholar och bearbetade med en integrerad analysmetod. Resultatet påvisade att sjuksköterskornas upplevelse var att crowding gav en påverkan på flera områden. De beskrev en försämrad arbetsmiljö och en högre arbetsbelastning. På grund av tidspress var de tvungna att utföra flera arbetsuppgifter simultant och ha ansvar för flertalet patienter samtidigt. De behövde ständigt omprioritera sina uppgifter och kände att de hade brist på kontroll över situationen under rådande crowding. Även sjuksköterskans egen hälsa blev ansatt när arbetsbelastningen blev för hög. De upplevde även att de inte hade möjlighet att arbeta enligt sjuksköterskans kärnkomptetenser och etiska koder vilket medförde konsekvenser för patienterna. Patientsäkerheten uppfattades hotad. Slutsatsen av denna litteraturstudie är att crowding är ett komplex dilemma som påverkar sjuksköterskans arbetssituation, hens egen hälsa och välbefinnande samt även får konsekvenser för vården av patienterna på akutmottagningen. Nyckelord: Crowding, Akutsjukvård, Sjuksköterskor, Upplevelse, Patientsäkerhet / ABSTRACT An emergency department is an organization constructed to take care of the acutely ill patient. The work includes stabilizing critically ill patients, treat when possible and conduct qualitative care in the acute phase. All around the world, a trend with an increasing number of patients seeking medical care and number remaining within the emergency departments is noticeable. This increases the demand on the organization. Crowding is an expression which describes a situation in the emergency department and means that the number of patients exceeds the capacity of the department. Crowding isn't necessarily defined only as a high number of patients present at the same time. It can also be described as high workload with a high burden of care. The resources available are not enough to meet the increased demand of care. This can lead to a decrease in patient-flow, an extended length of stay at the emergency department for patients and a higher staff workload. The aim with this study was to illustrate the nurses' experience of crowding in the emergency department. The method of choice was a literature review. Qualitative, quantitative and mixed method studies were all included. The result consists of 18 scientific articles, published 2007-2017, collected from the databases CINAHL Complete, PubMed and Google Scholar and then were processed with an integrated method of analyzis. The result suggests that nurses at the emergency departments experience that crowding affects several areas in and of their work. They described a deterioration in their working environment and a higher workload. Because of time pressure they had to perform several work tasks simultaneously and be responsible for many patients at the same time. During crowding they constantly had to reprioritize their tasks and felt that they had no control over the situation. The wellbeing of the individual nurse also was affected when the workload was high. They experienced poor possibility to perform according to code of conduct and ethical principles of nursing, and this lead to consequences for the patients. The patientsafety was percieved threatened. The conclusion of this literature study is that crowding is a complex dilemma which affects the worksituation of nurses, the health and wellbeing of nurses and it lead to consequences for the care of patients in the emergency department. Keywords: Crowding, Emergency care, Nurse, Experience, Patient safety

Elements from differential association and importation theory were incorporated into a contextual model to explain drug abuse inside prison. Data came from self-administered questionnaires given to more than 1,000 inmates in 30 different correctional institutions throughout Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to examine the impact of correctional context on individual behavior. Results indicated that drug abuse inside prison varies across different correctional institutions. The effect of prior street-drug use on drug abuse in prison also varied across contexts. Moreover, an aggregate measure of crowding explained both drug abuse in prison as well as the effect of prior street-drug use on substance abuse in prison.

Previous studies have explored the effects of crowding on non-human animals, human communities, human behavior, and differential effects on men and women. This area of research demands greater attention. Much of the existing work was performed in the 1970s and 80s. Further, it seeks to operationalize crowding only in terms of density. This study is premised on the idea set forth by Freedman that crowding is not merely the number of individuals per unit of space, but rather a subjective feeling. This thesis looks beyond density to find the effects of crowding on juror attitudes and decision-making. Participants were placed in a mock jury scenario. They read a description of a hypothetical court case, and, as individuals, came to a determination of the guilt or innocence of the defendant, as well as severity of punishment. Participants also engaged in a group deliberation and completed a questionnaire dealing with their attitudes regarding the defendant, their fellow group members, and their environment. Individuals in the crowded condition found the defendant to be guiltier than did those in the uncrowded condition. Crowded participants rated the room they were in as more uncomfortable.

Mystery shopping is used in a variety of service industries to measure service performance, as a training tool for employees, and to ensure the safety and security of the product offered. The persons performing this activity, mystery shoppers, experience various motivations, some of which are similar to employees and/or volunteers. These motivations can be intrinsic, where the performance of the activity is a reward itself, or extrinsic, meaning performance of the activity is a method for attaining a reward. The dominance of intrinsic or extrinsic motivation can shift within the individual, which is termed motivation crowding. Individuals can crowd in when intrinsic motivations are supplemented and supported by extrinsic motivations, or crowd out if extrinsic motivations become the dominant factor, devaluing the activity and reducing intrinsic motivation. This study examines the motivations of mystery shoppers and examines whether the tenets of motivation crowding are supported using a mixed methods research design. The objectives for the study were to identify, classify, and measure mystery shopping motivations using motivational theory to test for the presence of motivation crowding, as reflected in the initial two hypotheses: H1: There are salient dimensions of motivation influencing individual participation in mystery shopping activities. H2: Mystery shoppers experience motivation "crowding in" after initial performance of mystery shopping activities, with intrinsic motivations increasing. To address the first hypothesis, the study began with a qualitative research approach utilizing semi-structured interviews with current mystery shoppers. Through qualitative analysis, 14 constructs of mystery shopper motivations were identified. The constructs were then utilized to develop the Mystery Shopper Motivation Scale, following the eight-step scale development process defined by DeVellis (2003). The scale was then refined through pre-testing and pilot testing, and was used in a survey administration to 323 current mystery shoppers. Through factor analysis, the motivations identified were quantitatively supported, and then dependent t-tests indicated the presence of motivation crowding affecting mystery shoppers. However, unanticipated increases in extrinsic motivations prompted further analysis of motivations based on mystery shopping experience levels, resulting in the addition of a third hypothesis: H3: The direction of motivation crowding is dependent on the mystery shopper's level of experience. H3a: Mystery shoppers who have performed less than 10 mystery shops will crowd in, with an increase in intrinsic motivations and a decrease in extrinsic motivations. H3b: Mystery shoppers who have performed between 10-24 mystery shops will crowd in, with an increase in both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, and intrinsic motivations remaining the dominant factor. H3c: Mystery shoppers who have performed 25 or more mystery shops will crowd in, with an increase in both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, but extrinsic motivations becoming the dominant factor. Results supported motivation crowding as dependent on the experience level of the mystery shopper, prompting the categorization of three distinct mystery shopping phases of activity: the novelty phase, the exploratory phase, and the career phase. Empirical results of the survey were then compared to a subsequent round of qualitative analysis of mystery shopper online forums. Recommendations for future research include longitudinal studies of novelty phase mystery shoppers, examination of the effects motivation crowding may have on mystery shopper behavioral intentions, and incorporation of the perceived costs associated with mystery shopping.