<p dir="ltr"> As part of humanity's constant effort to explore and expand, the race to establish a cislunar economy is afoot. The Cryobubbles experiment seeks to advance the state of the art in long-term cryogenic propellant management, a field that is an integral part of exploring the next great frontier. The Cryobubbles experiment was created to understand an unexpected bubble formation phenomenon during a tank-pressure control strategy test of NASA's Zero Boil-off Tank (ZBOT) on the International Space Station. A few hypotheses about the causes of bubble formation were developed, and thanks to a NASA flight opportunities grant, the Cryobubbles experiment was designed and manufactured with a \$95,000 budget to test these hypotheses on a parabolic flight.</p><p dir="ltr"> This master's thesis explains the importance of understanding the causes of bubble formation and the thermodynamic operating point chosen to replicate ZBOT conditions. The operation of the experiment and the design of technologies developed to make these operations work are also discussed. Some notable technologies include an insulation sizing algorithm created to maintain the experiment operating point, cryogenically rated viewports that allow for high-quality video recording of the experiment, and copper coils sized to allow for the safe use of noncryogenic equipment in a cryogenic test setup. All of these designs were constrained by a budget, a fast-approaching flight test deadline, and safety considerations.</p><p dir="ltr"> At the time of this writing, the experiment has been fully designed, manufactured, and assembled. The next step is to conduct testing.</p>

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There is a need to improve the capabilities of cooling technology to dissipate increasingly high heat fluxes (approaching 200 W/cm²) from electronic components in order to maintain acceptable operating temperatures. The linear compressor with clearance seal and flexure spring which has been used for many years for space application, is an attractive proposition for vapour compression refrigeration (VCR) systems in electronics cooling applications because it offers several advantages over traditional compressor technology. This thesis introduces a novel design of oil-free linear compressor and investigates the performance of the linear compressor system and the key issues with respect to the operations of the compressor. A comprehensive system analysis has been carried out for the linear compressor regarding the moving magnet motor characteristics, spring stiffness, damping, imbalance of current in coils, DC offset and leakage across the clearance seal. To measure the performance of the linear compressor, an experimental apparatus and a data acquistion system have been built. A harmonic fitting approach has been proposed to reconstruct current, voltage and displacement signals using fast Fourier transform (FFT) and minimisation algorithms. The piston dynamics have been modelled to infer pressure-volume (P-V) diagrams. Preliminary measurements of the linear compressor at resonance using nitrogen show that an adiabatic efficiency of 42% - 60% and a motor efficiency of 71% - 89% are maintained over a wide range of operating parameters, indicating that systems using this type of compressor could have good part load efficiency. At the design point (a pressure ratio of 3.0 and a stroke of 13 mm), pressure drop loss is responsible for 27% of the total losses and the most significant loss is the copper loss (34%). A commercial crank-drive compressor with comparable properties has also been evaluated for comparison, showing that the prototype linear motor has a much higher efficiency than the rotary induction motor, particularly at low electrical power inputs while the volumetric efficiencies in the crank-drive compressor are about 20% higher. The linear compressor in a refrigeration system using R134a has been measured for different strokes under each pressure ratio with a fixed condenser outlet temperature of 50°C and evaporator temperature ranging from 6°C to 27°C. A model of the resonant frequency using discharge and suction pressures and the stroke has been validated. A coefficient of performance (COP) of 3.2 has been achieved at a cooling capacity of 384 W and an evaporator temperature of 20°C. This is assumed to be a typical CPU cooling condition. A Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID)/Pulse-Width-Modulation (PWM) control system using a solenoid operated valve has been developed for DC offset and clearance control. Operation of the linear compressor with a fixed clearance of 0.8 mm using nitrogen has been carried out in comparison with the fixed zero DC offset operation. When operated with a fixed clearance, the volumetric efficiency increases with a decreasing stroke but the fixed clearance operation requires a higher power input. This provides evidence that the piston control in a refrigeration system with capacity control should be for a zero DC offset.

International Telemetering Conference Proceedings / October 26-29, 1987 / Town and Country Hotel, San Diego, California / The Very Large Array (VLA) radio telescope, located in west-central New Mexico, obtains high-resolution radio images of astronomical objects by using Fourier aperture synthesis with 27 antennas. With the addition of X-band to its receiving capabilities by 1989, and when arrayed with the Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex (GDSCC), the VLA will double the Deep Space Network (DSN) receiving aperture in the U. S. longitude for signals from Voyager 2 at Neptune. This paper describes the VLA and the installation of the X-band system, its operation and performance for Voyager data reception, and its capabilities for other science at X-band.

The functional performance of joint implants is largely determined by the surface layer properties in contact. Wear/debris-induced osteolysis and aseptic loosening has been identified as the major cause of failure of metal-on-metal joint implants. A crucial requirement for the long-term stability of the artificial joint is to minimize the release of debris particles. Severe plastic deformation (SPD) processes have been used to modify the surface integrity properties by generating ultrafine, or even nano-sized grains and grain size gradients in the surface region of many materials. These fine grained materials often exhibit enhanced surface integrity properties and improved functional performance (wear resistance, corrosion resistance, fatigue life, etc.) compared with their conventional coarse grained counterparts. The aim of the present work is to investigate the effect of a SPD process, cryogenic burnishing, on the surface integrity modifications of a Co-Cr-Mo alloy, and the resulting wear performance of this alloy due to the burnishing-induced surface integrity properties. A systematic experimental study was conducted to investigate the influence of different burnishing parameters on distribution of grain size, phase structure and residual stresses of the processed material. The wear performance of the processed Co-Cr-Mo alloy was tested via pin-on-disk wear tests. The results from this work show that the cryogenic burnishing can significant improve the surface integrity of the Co-Cr-Mo alloy which would finally lead to advanced wear performance due to refined microstructure, high hardness, compressive residual stresses and favorable phase structure on the surface layer. A finite element model (FEM) was developed for predicting the grain size changes during burnishing of Co-Cr-Mo alloy under both dry and cryogenic conditions. A new material model was used for incorporating flow stress softening and associated grain size refinement caused by the dynamic recrystallization (DRX). The new material model was implemented in a commercial FEM software as a customized user subroutine. Good agreement between predictions and experimental observations was achieved. Encouraging trends are revealed with great potential for application in industry.

Head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCC) are among the leading causes of cancer related deaths throughout the world. The survival rate for this type of cancer is extremely low and has not changed significantly in recent decades. There is an imperative need to study tumor progression in a representative model in order to generate more knowledge about this disease as well as develop more effective treatment options. Multiple methods already exist for studying HNSCC and other types of cancers, including in vitro and in vivo models. Although in vivo models are more representative of the human carcinomas in terms of complexity of the microenvironment the tumor cells experience, they are difficult to manipulate and many experiments cannot be performed easily in whole organisms; therefore, in vitro models are used. Current in vitro models are typically two-dimensional (2D) monolayer cultures that are easily manipulated for a controlled environment, but these fail to mimic the native microenvironment in terms of three-dimensional (3D) interactions present in vivo. The literature documents that several 3D organotypic models of HNSCC have been created, showing significant differences in tumor response to drugs between these models and traditional 2D culture systems, perhaps suggesting a closer representation of human HNSCC. However, these models were not rigorously validated, with little comparison to in vivo tumor behavior. We developed a 3D HNSCC in vitro model using electrospun scaffolds to mimic the extracellular matrix as well as using a HNSCC-derived tumor cell line, HN12, in co-culture with a supporting fibroblast cell line. We compared the model to the same tumor cell line grown in vivo in immunodeficient mice. We also investigated drug sensitivity of tumor cells in our model compared to conventional monocultures to determine whether differences exist. Finally, we investigated pro-angiogenic properties of tumor cells in this model. The long-term goal is to develop a model that can be manipulated easily to study tumorigenic mechanisms and potential treatments.

Résumé : Les principaux challenges de l’industrie du futur sont de satisfaire à toujours plus d’exigences en termes de développement durable, d’optimisation des coûts et des délais. Les secteurs industriels fabriquant des produits à haute valeur ajoutée tels que l’aéronautique et le spatial, sont dans une perspective continue d’amélioration des produits manufacturés et des procédés. L’emploi de matériaux tels que des alliages de titane ou les superalliages à base de nickel devient courant. Ils sont cependant « complexes à usiner ». Les difficultés comme l’usure prématurée des outils, les déformations de pièces ou encore les mauvaises qualités de surface deviennent problématiques. C’est dans cette perspective que l’assistance cryogénique en usinage peut répondre aux diverses problématiques. Cette technologie peut apporter les réponses aux exigences d’industrialisation : limitation des élévations de température, pas de nettoyage post-usinage et pas d’utilisation de fluides de coupe nocifs pour les opérateurs. Cela induit pourtant de nouvelles questions tel que l’acheminement du fluide cryogénique vers les zones souhaitées, l’optimisation du procédé ou encore l’impact du grand froid sur les outils et les pièces. De nouveaux verrous technologiques et scientifiques apparaissent. Cette thèse propose de les étudier. / Abstract: The main challenges facing the industry are to satisfy ever more demands in terms of sustainable development, optimization of costs and deadlines. The industrial sectors manufacturing products with high added value in aeronautics and space, are continously in a perspective of improvement the manufactured products and processes. The use of materials such as titanium alloys or nickel-based superalloys is common. Its are "complex to machine". Difficulties in the use of tools, parts deformations or poor surface qualities become problematic. It is in this perspective that the cryogenic assistance in machining can answer the various problems. This technology can provide answers to the industrialization requirements: limiting the rising temperature, no post-machining cleaning and no use of cutting fluids, harmful, for operators. This leads to new questions such as the routing of the cryogenic fluid to the desired zones, the optimization of the process or the impact of a cold fluid on the tools and the parts. New technological and scientific locks are emerging. This PhD thesis propose to study them.

O processo de tratamento térmico à baixa temperatura é um dos métodos mais promissores para melhorar o desempenho dos materiais. O tratamento criogênico promove a transformação de austenita retida do aço em martensita, o que é atribuída para melhorar a dureza e resistência ao desgaste. Neste trabalho foram analisados os efeitos dos diferentes ciclos de tratamentos térmicos, comparando-se à tempera convencional (têmpera 1050°C + revenido simples e duplo a 200/530°C) respeito à adição do tratamento criogênico, (têmpera 1050°C + criogenia a -125°C + revenido simples e duplo a 200/530°C) com e sem tempo de espera de 24 horas, com a finalidade de avaliar a estabilização térmica da austenita retida no aço em relação a quantidade presente na microestrutura e consequentemente na influencia nas propriedades mecânicas do aço ferramenta para trabalho a frio AISI D2. As análises foram conduzidas através de testes de dureza, impacto, microscopia óptica, microscopia eletrônica de varredura e difração de raios-X. Os resultados encontrados foram uma variação pouco significativa na dureza entre 57 e 58 HRC. Foi evidenciada a baixa tenacidade ao impacto do aço AISI D2, independente das rotas dos ciclos de tratamento térmico, resultado da alta percentagem de carbonetos dispostos na microestrutura. A resistência ao impacto no aço em estudo após o tratamento criogênico, esses resultados foram relacionados à microestrutura do material. / The heat treatment process at low temperature is one of the most promising methods to improve the performance of materials. The cryogenic treatment promotes the transformation of retained austenite from the steel into martensite, which is attributed to improved hardness and wear resistance. In this work the effects of the different cycles of thermal treatments were analyzed, comparing to conventional tempering (tempering 1050°C + single and double annealing at 200/530°C) with respect to the addition of the cryogenic treatment (tempera 1050°C + cryogenics to - 125°C + single and double tempering at 200/530°C) with and without waiting time of 24 hours, in order to evaluate the thermal stabilization of the austenite retained in the steel in relation to the amount present in the microstructure and consequently in the influence on the mechanical properties of cold working tool steel AISI D2. The analyzes were conducted through tests of hardness, impact, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. The results found were a minor variation in hardness between 57 and 58 HRC. It was evidenced the low impact toughness of the AISI D2 steel, independent of the thermal treatment cycle routes, as a result of the high percentage of carbides disposed in the microstructure. The impact resistance in the steel studied after the cryogenic treatment, these results was related to the microstructure of the material.

Neste trabalho foi avaliada a tenacidade do aço rápido AISI M2 tratado termicamente por rotas convencionais e rotas criogênicas. A tenacidade foi verificada através de ensaios de impacto em corpos de prova sem entalhe e ensaios de flexão 3 pontos em corpos de prova cilíndricos. Os tratamentos térmicos foram realizados em forno a vácuo com resfriamento por nitrogênio sob 6 bar de pressão. As rotas convencionais foram constituídas por austenitização, têmpera e triplo revenimento a 560°C. As rotas criogênicas foram constituídas por austenitização e têmpera similares às rotas convencionais, além de processamento criogênico em nitrogênio líquido por períodos de 2 horas, 24 horas e 48 horas. As amostras submetidas a 2 horas de criogenia após a têmpera sofreram somente um revenimento e as amostras submetidas a 24 e 48 horas de criogenia sofreram triplo revenimento, todos a 560°C. Buscando-se avaliar o efeito da quantidade de austenita retida nos resultados dos processos criogênicos, utilizaram-se três temperaturas de austenitização: 1180°C, 1200°C e 1220°C. A caracterização metalográfica das amostras foi feita através de recursos de microscopia óptica, microscopia eletrônica de varredura, EDS e difração de raios-X. Os resultados do ensaio de impacto e flexão 3 pontos mostram que as rotas criogênicas produziram microestruturas finais com tenacidade igual ou superior às rotas convencionais, com destaque especial às rotas criogênicas com somente um revenimento que apresentaram resultados superiores às rotas convencionais consagradas, com múltiplos revenimentos. A análise fractográfica revela quantidade superior de áreas de fratura dúctil nas amostras tratadas por rotas criogênicas quando comparadas às amostras tratadas por rotas convencionais. Através da análise metalográfica via microscopia eletrônica de varredura verificaramse poucas diferenças microestruturais entre as amostras tratadas com e sem criogenia. O teor de austenita retida nas amostras tratadas pelas rotas criogênicas (dentro da mesma temperatura de austenitização) é bastante semelhante porém é sensivelmente inferior às amostras tratadas por rotas convencionais. Verificou-se que existem divergências na literatura no que diz respeito aos carbonetos precipitados devido ao processo criogênico, principalmente em relação a suas dimensões e características. O condicionamento da martensita e a precipitação de carbonetos pôde ser demonstrado indiretamente através do deslocamento do pico de dureza secundária na curva de revenimento de amostras submetidas à criogenia após a têmpera. Os melhores resultados foram verificados nas amostras criogênicas austenitizadas a 1180°C, que apresentaram menor quantidade de austen ita retida após a têmpera, mostrando assim que os processos criogênicos atuam na martensita obtida na têmpera e que a temperatura de austenitização desempenha papel fundamental nos resultados dos processos criogênicos. / In this work the toughness of the AISI M2 high speed steel heat treated by conventional and cryogenic routes has been evaluated. The toughness was evaluated through un-notched impact samples and 3 points bending cylindrical samples. The heat treatments were carried out in a vacuum furnace using nitrogen quenching with 6 bar of pressure. The conventional routes were constituted by austenitizing, quenching and triple tempering at 560°C. The cryogenic routes were constituted by the same austenitizing and quenching parameters used for the conventional routes, and also by cryogenic processing in liquid nitrogen for 2 hours, 24 hours and 48 hours. The samples submitted to 2 hours of cryogenic processing after quenching received only one tempering and the samples submitted to 24 and 48 hours of cryogenic processing were triple tempered, all at 560°C. In order to check the effect of the amount of retained austenite on the cryogenic processes, three different austenitizing temperatures were used: 1180°C, 1200°C and 1220°C. The metallographic characterization was performed using optical microscopy, scanning electronic microscopy, EDS analysis and X-ray diffraction. The impact and 3 points bending tests results show that the cryogenic routes have produced final microstructures with toughness values equal or superior to the conventional routes with a special highlight to the cryogenic routes with only one tempering after the freezing process, that have shown superior results compared to the classic multi-tempering cycles. The fractographic analysis has revealed for the cryogenic routes samples a greater amount of ductile fracture areas compared to the conventional routes of hardening. The scanning electronic microscopy analysis has revealed few microstructure differences between the conventional and cryogenic hardening routes. The amount of retained austenite amongst the cryogenic samples (with the same austenitizing temperature) is similar, but is sensibly less than the amount found in the samples submitted to the conventional routes. Several divergences has been detected in the literature related to the cryogenic treatment of tool steels, especially concerning the dimensions and characteristics of the precipitated carbides. The martensite conditioning and the fine carbide precipitation could be indirectly demonstrated by the shift of the secondary hardness peak on the tempering curve of samples submitted to cryogenic treatment after the quenching. Optimum results were observed in the cryogenic samples hardened at 1180°C. Those samples retained the lowest amounts of austenite after quenching showing that the cryogenic processes has an effect in the quenching formed martensite and that the austenitizing temperature is a key factor on the final results of the cryogenic processes.

L’observation de la double désintégration bêta sans neutrinos (0ν2β) impliquerait la violation de la conservation du numéro leptonique, signe d’une nouvelle physique au-delà du Modèle Standard, et permettrait d’établir la nature de Majorana des neutrinos. Les bolomètres scintillants cryogéniques sont parmi les détecteurs les plus prometteurs pour rechercher ce processus nucléaire extrêmement rare dans des noyaux qui sont théoriquement entre les plus favorables.Des scintillateurs de ZnMoO₄ ayant une masse de ∼ 0.3 kg, ainsi que des cristaux de Zn¹⁰⁰ MoO₄ enrichi dans l’isotope ¹⁰⁰Mo, ont été produits pour la première fois en utilisant la technique de Czochralski à faible gradient thermique. Les propriétés optiques et de luminescence des cristaux produits ont été étudiées pour évaluer le progrès de la qualité de la croissance des cristaux. Des tests à basse température avec un scintillateur de 313 g de ZnMoO₄et deux scintillateurs de Zn¹⁰⁰ MoO₄ enrichis ont été réalisées en surface au Centre de Sciences Nucléaires et de Sciences de la Matière. On a aussi mené des mesures à faible fond radioactif avec trois cristaux de ZnMoO₄ naturels et deux détecteurs enrichis, installés dans le setup d’ EDELWEISS au Laboratoire Souterrain de Modane.Pour optimiser la collecte de la lumière dans des bolomètres scintillants cryogénique de ZnMoO₄, nous avons simulé par une méthode Monte Carlo la collecte des photons de scintillation dans un module de détection pour différentes géométries, en utilisant le logiciel GEANT4. La réponse à la désintégration 2ν2β de ¹⁰⁰Mo a été simulée pour des détecteurs enrichis de Zn¹⁰⁰ MoO₄ avec forme et masse différente, avec le but de comprendre la structure des spectres 2ν2β en fonctionne de la forme des cristaux. Nous avons simulé aussi la performance de 48 cristaux de Zn¹⁰⁰ MoO₄ ayant une taille de Ø60 × 40 mm et installés dans le cryostat d’EDELWEISS. La contribution au fond de la contamination radioactive interne des cristaux, l’activation cosmogénique et la contamination radioactive du setup ont été simulées.Tenant compte de la modeste résolution temporelle des bolomètres à basse température, nous avons également étudié la contribution au fond à l'énergie Q₂β déterminé par des coïncidences aléatoires de signaux, en particulier du à la décroissance 2ν2β, qui est l'une des sources de fond les plus dangereuses dans les bolomètres cryogéniques. Des méthodes pour le rejet d’événements coïncidant par hasard ont été développées et comparées. Nous avons également analysé la dépendance de l'efficacité de rejet à l’égard des performances du détecteur cryogénique. / Observation of neutrinoless double beta (0ν2β) decay would imply the violation of lepton number conservation and definitely new physics beyond the Standard Model, establishing the Majorana nature of neutrinos. Cryogenic scintillating bolometers look the most promising detectors to search for this extremely rare nuclear process in a few theoretically the most favorable nuclei.ZnMoO₄ scintillators with a mass of ∼ 0.3 kg, as well as Zn¹⁰⁰ MoO₄ crystals enriched in the isotope ¹⁰⁰Mo were produced for the first time by using the low-thermal-gradient Czochralski technique. The optical and luminescent properties of the produced crystals were studied to estimate the progress in crystal growth quality. The low-temperature tests with a 313 g ZnMoO₄ scintillator and two enriched Zn¹⁰⁰ MoO₄ were performed aboveground in the Centre de Sciences Nucléaires et de Sciences de la Matière. The low background measurements with a three ZnMoO₄ and two enriched detectors installed in the EDELWEISS set-up at the Laboratoire Souterrain de Modane were carried out.To optimize the light collection in ZnMoO₄ cryogenic scintillating bolometers, we have simulated the collection of scintillation photons in a detector module for different geometries by Monte Carlo method using the GEANT4 package. Response to the 2ν2β decay of ¹⁰⁰Mo was simulated for the enriched Zn¹⁰⁰ MoO₄ detectors of different shape and mass to understand the dependence of 2ν2β decay spectra on crystal shape. We have simulated 48 Zn¹⁰⁰ MoO₄ crystals with a size of Ø60 × 40 mm installed in the EDELWEISS cryostat. The contribution to background from the internal radioactive contamination of the crystals, cosmogenic activation and radioactive contamination of the set-up were simulated.Taking into account the poor time resolution of the low temperature bolometers, we also studied contribution to background at the Q₂β energy of random coincidences of signals, in particular of 2ν2β decay, which is one of the most valuable sources of background in cryogenic bolometers. Methods of the randomly coinciding events rejection were developed and compared. We have also analyzed dependence of the rejection efficiency on a cryogenic detector performance.