Metal-organic materials (MOMs) represent a unique class of porous materials that captured a great scientific interest in various fields such as chemical engineering, physics and materials science. They are typically assembled from metal ions or metal clusters connected by multifunctional organic ligands. They represent a wide range of families of materials that varied from 0D to 3D networks: the discrete (0D) structures exemplified by metal-organic polyhedra (MOPs), cubes and nanoballs while the polymeric 1D, 2D and 3D structures exemplified by coordination polymers (CPs). Indeed, the porous 3D structures include metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), porous coordination polymers (PCPs) and porous coordination networks (PCNs). Nevertheless, MOMs are long and well-known from more than 50 years ago as exemplified by CPs that were firstly introduced in early 1960s and reviewed in 1964. However, the scientific interest toward MOMs has been enormously grown only since late 1990s, with the discovery of MOMs with novel properties, especially the high permanent porosity as exemplified by MOF-5 and HKUST-1. The inherent tunability of MOMs from the de novo design to the post-synthetic modification along with their robustness, afford numerous important families of nets "platforms" such as pcu, dia, tbo, mtn and rht topology networks. There are more than 20,000 crystal structures of MOMs in the Cambridge Structure Database (CSD). However, only a few of the networks can be regarded as families or platforms where the structure is robust, fine-tunable and inherently modular. Such robustness and inherent modularity of the platforms allow the bottom-up control over the structure "form comes before function" which subsequently facilitates the systematic study of structure/function in hitherto unprecedented way compared with the traditional screening approaches that are commonly used in materials science. In this context, we present the crystal engineering of two MOM platforms; dia and novel fsc platforms as well we introduce the novel two-step synthetic approach using trigonal prismatic clusters to build multinodal 2D and 3D MOM platforms. For the dia platform, we introduce a novel strategy to control over the level of the interpenetration of dia topology nets via solvent-template control and study the impact of the resulting different pore sizes on the squeezing of CH4, CO2 and H2 gases. New benchmark material for methane isosteric heat of adsorption was produced from this novel work. Indeed we introduce the crystal engineering of a novel versatile 4,6-c fsc platform that is formed from linking two of the longest known and most widely studied MBBs: the square planar MBB [Cu(AN)4]2+( AN = aromatic nitrogen donor) and square paddlewheel MBB [Cu2(CO2R)4] that are connected by five different linkers with different length, L1-L5. The resulting square grid nets formed from alternating [Cu(AN)4]2+ and [Cu2(CO2R)4] moieties are pillared at the axial sites of the [Cu(AN)4]2+ MBBs with dianionic pillars to form neutral 3D 4,6-connected fsc (four, six type c) nets. Pore size control in this family of fsc nets was exerted by varying the length of the linker ligand whereas pore chemistry was implemented by unsaturated metal centers (UMCs) and the use of either inorganic or organic pillars. 1,5-naphthalenedisulfonate (NDS) anions pillar in an angular fashion to afford fsc-1-NDS, fsc-2-NDS, fsc-3-NDS, fsc-4-NDS and fsc-5-NDS from L1-L5, respectively. Experimental CO2 sorption studies revealed higher isosteric heat of adsorption (Qst) for the compound with the smaller pore size (fsc-1-NDS). Computational studies revealed that there is higher CO2 occupancy about the UMCs in fsc-1-NDS compared to other extended variants that were synthesized with NDS. SiF62- (SIFSIX) anions in fsc-2-SIFSIX form linear pillars that result in eclipse [Cu2(CO2R)4] moieties at a distance of just 5.86 Å. The space between the [Cu2(CO2R)4] moieties is a strong CO2 binding site that can be regarded as being an example of a single-molecule trap; this finding has been supported by modeling studies. Furthermore, we present herein the implementation of the two-step synthetic approach for the construction of novel multinodal MOM platforms, using the trigonal prism cluster [M3(µ3-O)(RCO2)6] as a precursor to build novel stable multinodal 2D and 3D frameworks. In the first step, the bifunctional carboxylate ligands are reacted with Fe+3 or Cr+3 salts to isolate highly symmetrical decorated trigonal prismatic clusters with diverse decoration such as pyridine, amine and cyano coordinating functional groups using pyridine carboxylate, amino carboxylate, cyano carboxylate type ligands, respectively. Afterward, the isolated highly soluble trigonal prismatic salts were reacted in the second step with another metal that can act as node or linker to connect the discrete trigonal prismatic clusters to build 2D or 3D networks. Indeed, we were able to develop another novel high-symmetry Cu cluster [Cu3(µ3-Cl)(RNH2)6Cl6] by utilizing CuCl2 salt and amine decorated trigonal prismatic cluster. Two novel 3D water stable frameworks with acs and stp topologies have been afforded. Our work on the crystal engineering design and synthesis of new MOM platforms offer an exceptional level of control over the resulting structure including; the resulting topology, pore size, pore chemistry and thereby enable the control over the resulting physicochemical properties in a manner that facilitates the achieving of the desired properties.

Title from PDF of title page. / Document formatted into pages; contains 80 pages. / Thesis (M.S.)--University of South Florida, 2003. / Includes bibliographical references. / Text (Electronic thesis) in PDF format. / ABSTRACT: The synthesis or the interaction between two or more molecules is known as supramolecular chemistry. The concept of supramolecular chemistry can be applied to the design of new pharmaceutical materials affording new compositions of matter with desirable composition, structure and properties. The design of a two-molecule, or binary, compound using complementary molecules represents an example of an application of crystal engineering. Crystal engineering is the understanding of intermolecular interactions, in the context of crystal packing, in the design of new solid materials. By identifying reliable connectors through molecular recognition or self-assembly, one can build predictable architectures. / ABSTRACT: The study of supramolecular synthesis was accomplished using known pharmaceutical molecules such as Nifedipine (calcium channel blocker used for cardiovascular diseases) and Phenytoin (used as an anticonvulsant drug) and model compounds containing synthons common in pharmaceutical drugs (Crown ethers and Trimesic acid with ether linkages and carboxylic acid dimers, respectively) with complementary molecular additives. The co-crystals formed were characterized by various techniques (IR, m.p., XPD, single X-ray diffraction) and preliminary results were found to exhibit characteristics different from the parent compounds as a direct result of hydrogen bonding and self-assembly interactions. These crystalline assemblies could afford improved solubility, dissolution rate, stability and bioavailability. / System requirements: World Wide Web browser and PDF reader. / Mode of access: World Wide Web.

Enhancing the physicochemical properties of solid-state materials through crystal engineering enables optimization of these materials without covalent modification. Cocrystals have become a reliable means to generate novel crystalline forms with multiple components and they exhibit different physicochemical properties compared to the individual components. This dissertation exemplifies methodologies to generate cocrystals of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API's) based upon knowledge of supramolecular interactions (supramolecular synthons), while focusing on enhanced delivery through in vitro and in vivo processes with both salts and cocrystals respectively. The utility of mechanochemistry involving small amounts of an appropriate solvent, or solvent drop grinding (SDG), has been shown to reliably reproduce cocrystals with the anti-convulsant carbamazepine that were originally obtained by solution crystallization. This technique has been confirmed as a reliable screening method using solvents in which both components exhibit some solubility. The benefits of this technique lie in the time and cost efficiency associated with it as well as its inherently small environmental impact making it a "Green" method. SDG was also used as an efficient way to discover cocrystals of the anti-inflammatory meloxicam with carboxylic acids after analysis of existing reports and the analysis of structural data from the Cambridge Structural Database (CSD) to guide the choice of coformer. It has been shown that SDG can be used to screen for cocrystalline forms that are also obtainable by solution crystallization which is important in later stage development and manufacturing including but not limited to large scale up processes. Single crystals suitable for single crystal X-ray diffraction were obtained with meloxicam and two of the coformers, fumaric and succinic acid. Some of the meloxicam cocrystals exhibited enhanced pharmacokinetic (PK) profiles in rats exemplifying significantly higher serum concentrations after only fifteen minutes and consistently higher exposure over the time studied while others maintained lower exposure. This reveals that cocrystals can fine tune the PK profile of meloxicam in order to reduce or enhance exposure. Two different sulfonate salts, 4-hydroxybenzenesulfonate (p-phenolsulfonate) and 4-chlorobenzenesulfonate, of the anti-spastic agent (R,S) baclofen were developed by strategically interrupting the intramolecularly stabilized zwitterionic structure of baclofen. This zwitterionic structure results in low solubility associated with physiological pH required for intrathecal administration. Structural data for both salts in the form of single crystal X-ray diffraction data was successfully obtained. Solubility based on baclofen was assessed and shown to increase in pure water and at pH's 1 and 7. Only the 4-chlorobenzenesulonate salt maintained an increased solubility over two days at pH 7 making it a viable candidate for further study in terms of intrathecal administration. During crystallization experiments with (R,S) baclofen two polymorphic forms of the baclofen lactam were generated, Forms II and III. Both forms are conformational polymorphs confirmed by single crystal X-ray diffraction and Form II has a Z' of 4 with an unusual arrangement of enantiomers.

With a greater understanding of the fundamentals of crystal engineering lays the potential for the development of a vast array of novel materials for a plethora of applications. Addressed herein is the latent potential of the current knowledge base with an emphasis upon cocrystallization and the desire for scientific exploration that will lead to the development of a future generation of novel cocrystals. The focus of this dissertation is to expand the cocrystallization knowledge base in two directions with the utilization of cocrystals in the novel synthetic technique of cocrystal controlled solid-state synthesis and in the development of active pharmaceutical ingredients. Cocrystal controlled solid-state synthesis uses a cocrystal to align the reactive moieties in such a way that the reaction occurs more quickly and in higher yield than the typical solution methodology. The focus herein is upon cocrystal controlled solid-state synthesis of imides where an anhydride and primary amine were the reactive moieties. Forty-nine reactions were attempted and thirty-two resulted in successful imide formation. In addition, the cocrystal was isolated as part of the reaction pathway in three cases and is described in detail. The impact of cocrystals upon active pharmaceutical ingredients is also addressed with a focus upon generating novel crystal forms of lamotrigine and meloxicam. Cocrystallization attempts of lamotrigine resulted in ten novel crystal forms including three cocrystals, one cocrystal solvate, three salts, one solvated salt, a methanol solvate, and an ethanol hydrate. Additionally, cocrystallization attempts of meloxicam afforded seven novel cocrystals. Solubility and pharmacokinetic studies were conducted for a selected set of lamotrigine and meloxicam crystal forms to determine the crystal form with the most desirable properties. Properties between crystal form and cocrystal former were also examined.

The design and synthesis of novel functional materials with fine-tunable physical and chemical properties has been an aspiration of materials scientists since at least Feynman's famous speech "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom" which has fittingly been credited with ushering in the nanotechnology era. Crystal engineering, as the solid-state manifestation of supramolecular chemistry, is well positioned to make substantial contributions to this worthwhile endeavor. Within the realm of crystal engineering resides the subdiscipline of metal-organic materials (MOMs) which pertains most simplistically to the coordination bond and includes such objects as coordination polymers, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and discrete architectures, each of which share the common aspect that they are designed to be modular in nature. While metal-organic materials have been studied for quite some time, only recently have they enjoyed an explosion in significance and popularity, with much of this increased attention being attributed to two realizations; that this inherent modularity ultimately results in an almost overwhealming degree of diversity and subsequently, that this diversity can give rise to effective control of the properties of functional materials. At long last the goal of attaining fine-tunablity may be within our grasp. In addition to high levels of diversity, MOMs are also characterized by a broad range of complexity, both in their overall structures and in the nature of their constituents. From the simplest molecular polygons to extended 3-periodic frameworks of unprecedented topologies, MOMs have the capacity to adopt an array of structural complexities. Moreover, there has been a recent trend of increasing complexity of the very building blocks that construct the framework. It is the aim of the research presented in this dissertation to survey these two principle aspects of MOMs, diversity and complexity, by focusing upon the use of polycarboxylates and first row transition metals to synthesize several series of closely related materials imbued with varied levels of complexity. Through the use of single crystal X-ray diffraction and the charcterization of the materials' properties, the structure-function relationship has been probed. Finally, novel design strategies incorporating supermolecular building blocks for the creation of a new generation of MOMs has been addressed.

Network structures based upon metal-organic backbones represent a new class of functional materials that can be rationally constructed by employing the concepts of supramolecular chemistry and crystal engineering. The modularity of design strategies, the diversity of prototypal structures, and the dynamic features of networks have afforded great advantages over traditional materials syntheses. The research presented in this thesis is primarily concerned with developing an in-depth understanding of the basic principles that govern the supramolecular behaviors of metal-organic networks and gaining an experimental control over the structure and function of these new classes of hybrid materials.The use of rigid and angular organic ligands along with transition metal clusters gives rise to a wide variety of novel metal-organic architectures ranging from zero-dimensional nanostructures to three-dimensional frameworks. Conformational analysis of these structural models suggests the geometric foundations for the existence of superstructural diversity. Controlled crystallization experiments further reveal the synthetic factors that might determine the formation of supramolecular isomers.Careful selection of more labile organic components, on the other hand, leads to flexible metal-organic networks exhibiting dynamic characteristics that have not been observed in their rigid counterparts. The guest-dependent closing/opening of cavities and the ease of fine-tuning their chemical environments demonstrate the effectiveness of such a strategy in the context of generating tailored functional materials.

There are currently three known crystal packing motifs of boronsubphthalocyanine derivatives. Each motif is associated with a particular class of BsubPc derivatives, and none are ideal for organic electronic applications according to the criteria we defined for evaluation: having a continuous pathway for charge-carrier conduction in the solid-state, resistance to hydrolysis, good electrochemical and optical properties, and possession of a robust crystal form. In this thesis, we present five methods for altering the crystal packing structure of phenoxy-BsubPc derivatives in order to meet the above four criteria. We find that neither addition of steric bulk to the axial derivative nor changing the symmetry of the compounds is sufficient for creating a new crystal packing motif. We do find that reducing the symmetry of the axial group does increase the solubility greatly, however. We identify a new motif for BsubPc crystals that occurs when the intermolecular interactions between the axial phenoxy segment and the BsubPc ligand are increased. We present two methods for achieving this new motif, one is through addition of a π-Br interaction and the other is through creation of a strong π-acid/ π-base stacking by making the axial phenoxy more π-electron rich. Unfortunately, the p-bromophenoxy-BsubPc forms this new motif as a kinetic product, isolation of which is unreliable. Attaching a naphthol fragment axially to the BsubPc creates a stable version of this new motif. We also synthesized a new class of BsubPc pseudohalides based on sulfonate derivatives. Of the derivatives in this new class, we found that mesylate-BsubPc forms into a crystal packing structure that possesses a one-dimensional pathway for charge carrier mobility, but is still resistant to hydrolysis under the conditions tested. Overall, we show four compounds that meet the criteria for further study as organic electronic materials: p-methoxyphenoxy-BsubPc, α-naphthoxy-BsubPc, β-naphthoxy-BsubPc, and mesylate-BsubPc.

There are currently three known crystal packing motifs of boronsubphthalocyanine derivatives. Each motif is associated with a particular class of BsubPc derivatives, and none are ideal for organic electronic applications according to the criteria we defined for evaluation: having a continuous pathway for charge-carrier conduction in the solid-state, resistance to hydrolysis, good electrochemical and optical properties, and possession of a robust crystal form. In this thesis, we present five methods for altering the crystal packing structure of phenoxy-BsubPc derivatives in order to meet the above four criteria. We find that neither addition of steric bulk to the axial derivative nor changing the symmetry of the compounds is sufficient for creating a new crystal packing motif. We do find that reducing the symmetry of the axial group does increase the solubility greatly, however. We identify a new motif for BsubPc crystals that occurs when the intermolecular interactions between the axial phenoxy segment and the BsubPc ligand are increased. We present two methods for achieving this new motif, one is through addition of a π-Br interaction and the other is through creation of a strong π-acid/ π-base stacking by making the axial phenoxy more π-electron rich. Unfortunately, the p-bromophenoxy-BsubPc forms this new motif as a kinetic product, isolation of which is unreliable. Attaching a naphthol fragment axially to the BsubPc creates a stable version of this new motif. We also synthesized a new class of BsubPc pseudohalides based on sulfonate derivatives. Of the derivatives in this new class, we found that mesylate-BsubPc forms into a crystal packing structure that possesses a one-dimensional pathway for charge carrier mobility, but is still resistant to hydrolysis under the conditions tested. Overall, we show four compounds that meet the criteria for further study as organic electronic materials: p-methoxyphenoxy-BsubPc, α-naphthoxy-BsubPc, β-naphthoxy-BsubPc, and mesylate-BsubPc.

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xviii, 724 p. : ill. (some col.) / Structural trends applicable to crystal engineering were studied in three classes of thiourea-based compounds. The aim of the study was to identify, predict, and ultimately design reliable single-molecule structural features, which could then be used to engineer crystals with desirable properties. In one class of compounds, this goal was achieved: N-alkyl and N-aryl derivatives of N,N'-bis(3-thioureidopropyl)piperazine adopted an identical conformation in the solid state, which resulted in near-identical crystal packing. A second class of closely related compounds, N-substituted tris(2-thioureidoethyl)amines, showed no such reliability in the solid state, likely because the parent structure lacked hydrogen-bonding functionalities sufficient to control intramolecular structure. In the third class of compounds that we studied, 1-benzoyl-3-(2-pyridyl)thioureas, substitution patterns were often predictive of molecular conformation; however, these intramolecular trends did not lead to recognizable crystal packing motifs. Nevertheless, certain physical properties observed in this last class of compounds--color, solubility, and often crystallinity--were conformer-specific, interestingly without any apparent relevance to crystal lattice structure. Solution-state and solid-state conformational trends in these 1-benzoyl-3-(2-pyridyl)thioureas have been documented, and speculations as to the source of color in one of the two observed conformations have been noted. / Committee in charge: Shih-Yuan Liu, Chairperson; Kenneth M. Doxsee, Advisor; Michael M. Haley, Member; Catherine J. Page, Member; Paul J. Wallace, Outside Member