<div> Recent advancements of health monitoring sensing technologies are enabling plethora of new applications in a variety of biomedical areas. In this work, we present a new sensing technology that enables a fully autonomous monitoring of urinary tract infection (UTI). UTI is the second most common infection in the human body caused by bacterial pathogens, and costs millions of dollars each year to the patients and the health care industry. UTI is easily treatable using antibiotics if identified in early stages. However, when early stage identification is missed, UTI can be a major source of serious complications such as ascending infections, loss of kidney function, bacteremia, and sepsis. Unfortunately, the limitations of existing UTI monitoring technologies such as high cost, time-intensive sample preparation, and relatively high false alarm rate prohibit reliable detection of UTI in early stages. The problem becomes more serious in certain patient groups such as infants and geriatric patients suffering from neurodegenerative diseases, who have difficulties in realizing the symptoms and communicating the symptoms with their caregivers. In addition to the aforementioned difficulties, the fact that UTI is often asymptomatic makes early stage identifications quite challenging, and the reliable monitoring and detection of UTI in early stages remain as a serious problem.</div><div> To address these issues, we propose a diaper-embedded, self-powered, and fully autonomous UTI monitoring sensor module that enables autonomous monitoring and detection of UTI in early stages with minimal effort. The sensor module consists of a paper-based colorimetric nitrite sensor, urine-activated batteries, a boost dc-dc converter, a low-power sensor interface utilizing pulse width modulation, a Bluetooth low energy module for wireless transmission, and a software performing calibration at run-time. </div><div> To further optimize the sensor module, a new fully integrated DC-DC converter with low-profile and low ripple is developed. The proposed DC-DC converter maintains an extremely low level of output voltage ripples in the face of different battery output voltages, which is crucial for realizing low-noise sensor interfaces. Since the DC-DC converter is a part of a module embedded into a diaper, it is highly desirable for the DC-DC converter to have a small physical form factor in both area and height. To address this issue, the proposed DC-DC converter adopts a new charge recycling technique that enables a fully integrated design without utilizing any off-chip components. In addition, the DC-DC converter utilizes sub-module sharing techniques – multiple modules share a voltage buffer and a recycle capacitor to reduce power consumption and save chip area. The DC-DC converter provides a regulated voltage of 1.2V and achieves a maximum efficiency of 80% with a 300ohm load resistance. The output voltage ripple is in the range of 19.6mV to 26.6mV for an input voltage ranging from 0.66 to 0.86V.<br></div>

Este trabalho, constitui-se em uma contribuição para o estudo das estratégias de mo-dulação direta baseadas em histerese e que funcionam em frequência fixa de comutação. Tem como objetivo principal propor a estratégia delta modificada, que diferencia-se na forma de ajuste da largura de banda de histerese, alterando-se seus limites e em como executa o comando de bloqueio das chaves de potência, para que a corrente de saída se mantenha em frequência fixa de operação e apresente rápida resposta dinâmica no sistema controlado. Para tanto, não necessita da utilização de derivadas, nem de uma corrente média de referência, tão pouco, se utiliza dos tempos de comutação. A estratégia proposta, comprova que é possível produzir os adequados pulsos de comando para o processamento da energia proveniente de célula combustível, através do conversor estático de potência, utilizando-se, principalmente, dos valores de ultrapassagem nos limites estabelecidos de histerese. Como objetivo secundário desta pesquisa, desenvolve-se um conversor CC/CC auxiliar para adaptar e estabilizar a energia proveniente da CAC, compondo-se um sistema útil que serve de base para fornecer energia, aos mais diversos tipos de cargas em CC. Além disso, apresenta-se uma revisão das estratégias de modulação em modo direto para o controle da corrente de saída no conversor estático, tendo como base a tensão nos terminais de um indutor. Contudo, outras estratégias são naturalmente citadas, no transcorrer deste trabalho, devido haver combinações entre as diferentes estratégias moduladoras e controladoras comentadas. / This work, is a contribution to the study of direct modulation strategies based on hysteresis and that operate at fixed switching frequency. Its main objective is to propose the modified delta strategy, which differentiates from the others strategies in the form of adjustment of hysteresis bandwidth, changing its limits and in executing the locking command of the power keys, so that the output current is maintain at fixed frequency of operation and a rapid dynamic response in the controlled system. In order to do so, it does not require the use of derivatives or a reference average current and also the switching times are not used. This strategy shows that it is possible to produce the appropriate command pulses for the processing of fuel cell energy by the static power converter using mainly the exceedance limit values. As a secondary objective of this research, an auxiliary DC/DC converter is developed to adapt and stabilize the energy coming from the fuel cell, forming a useful system that serves as a base to supply power to the most diverse types of DC loads. In addition, we present a review of the direct-mode modulation strategies for the control of the output current in the static converter, updating data, and based on the voltage at the terminals of an inductor; how-ever, others strategies are naturally cited because there are combinations between the different modulating strategies and controllers commented on in the course of this work.

O presente trabalho aborda a análise e o desenvolvimento de conversores CC-CC com alto ganho de tensão, para aplicações com fontes de energia de baixíssima tensão, porém capazes de fornecer altas correntes, como: painéis fotovoltaicos, células a combustível e baterias. O principal objetivo deste trabalho é elevar a tensão de uma única célula a combustível até um nível adequado de tensão para realizar a carga de uma bateria com tensão nominal de aproximadamente 12 V, de modo eficiente, com baixa ondulação na corrente de entrada do conversor e com baixa ondulação na tensão de saída. Para alcançar o objetivo proposto, dezenas de topologias de conversores foram estudadas, analisadas, simuladas e implementadas. O trabalho também apresenta uma comparação entre topologias de conversores CC-CC que realizam a transferência de energia por meio de indutores acoplados, com uma topologia de conversor que opera com transferência direta de energia por meio de um transformador. Por fim, os resultados experimentais são apresentados com o intuito de validar os resultados simulados e teóricos. / This work shows the analysis and development of DC-DC converters with high voltage gain, for applications with energy sources of low input voltage, but capable of providing high currents, such as: photovoltaic panels, fuel cells and batteries. The main objective of this work is to raise the voltage of a single fuel cell to a suitable vol-tage level to efficiently charge a battery with rated voltage of approximately 12 V, with low current ripple in the converter and with low output voltage ripple. To achieve the proposed objective, dozens of topologies of converters were studied, analyzed, simulated and implemented. This work shows a comparison between topologies of DC-DC converters that perform power transfer via coupled inductors, with a converter topology operating with direct energy transfer through a transformer. Finally, experimental results are presented in order to validate the theoretical and simulated results.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / O presente trabalho apresenta o estudo de um conversor CC/CC com dois estÃgios para aplicaÃÃo no desenvolvimento de sistemas autÃnomos de energia elÃtrica. O conversor sob estudo consiste basicamente da associaÃÃo de dois conversores CC/CC, em que entre eles à inserido um banco de baterias para dar continuidade ao fornecimento de energia em perÃodos em que nÃo hà radiaÃÃo solar. Todos os conversores utilizados para a composiÃÃo do sistema sÃo do tipo boost utilizando a cÃlula de comutaÃÃo de trÃs estados (CCTE). O primeiro conversor tem a funÃÃo enviar energia desde os painÃis fotovoltaicos a um banco de baterias de 48 V e permitir a operaÃÃo dos painÃis fotovoltaicos no ponto de mÃxima potÃncia (MPP- Maximum Power Point). O segundo estÃgio à constituÃdo por um conversor de alto ganho de tensÃo, cujo papel à elevar a tensÃo do banco de baterias de 48 V para uma tensÃo de 400 Vcc, formando assim o barramento de saÃda do sistema em tensÃo contÃnua. Para garantir a regulaÃÃo da tensÃo em 400 Vcc, foi implementada a tÃcnica de controle LQR (Linear Quadratic Regulator). Para o projeto do controle LQR à utilizado uma metodologia simplificada para a obtenÃÃo de um modelo reduzido do conversor de alto ganho de tensÃo. Para cada estÃgio à apresentado seu estudo teÃrico, anÃlise de perdas e dimensionamento dos componentes para o atendimento das especificaÃÃes de projeto. Para verificar a anÃlise teÃrica foi montado um protÃtipo para cada estÃgio e os resultados experimentais sÃo apresentados neste trabalho. / This work presents a study of a DC/DC converter with two stages for implementation of a stand-alone photovoltaic power system. The converter under study consists of two DC/DC converters, in which between them is inserted a battery bank to give continuity to the energy supply in periods when there isnât solar radiation. All converters used for the composition of the system are of type boost based on the three-state switching cell (TSSC). The first converter has function of to send energy from photovoltaic panels to a battery bank of 48 V formed by four batteries of 12V connected in series, and its function is to allow the photovoltaic panels operation at the maximum power point (MPP). The second stage consists of a converter of high voltage gain, whose role is to raise the 48 V battery bank voltage to 400V DC output bus voltage. To ensure the regulation of voltage at 400 V DC, was implemented the control LQR (Linear Quadratic Regulator). To design the controller LQR, a simplified methodology to obtain a model of the high-gain voltage converter is used. For each stage is presented its theoretical study, analysis and the components were designed and specified. To verify the theoretical analysis, was developed a prototype for each stage and the experimental results are presented in this work.

FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico / With global need to reduce energy consumption, the search for more efficient technologies has become the focus of many studies. Among these technologies, it can mention the photovoltaic solar energy and LEDs, which have shown an expansion in recent decades. Photovoltaic generation is shown as an attractive energy source because it is renewable and its raw material is practically inexhaustible. While LEDs have a promising advance in lighting and is used in several applications. To integrate these technologies, this paper proposes the study of a DC-DC step-up switched-capacitor (SC) converter for LEDs applied to photovoltaic stand-alone systems. The proposed circuit differs from other topologies SC to insert an inductor in series with the input source, which can operate in discontinuous conduction mode (DCM), reducing losses switching, or continuous conduction mode (CCM), allowing the reduction of conduction losses in the circuit. The converter is driven by the frequency modulation, which is obtained as a function of input voltage. For this reason, the current in the LEDs can be stabilized without the need for sensor or feedback. The prototype developed in the laboratory was designed for a lamp of 54 W and operating at high frequency (up to 165 kHz), allowing the reduction of the circuit volume. Experimental results of the circuit in DCM and CCM show that the converter has a high yield, validating the proposal. / Tendo em vista a tendÃncia da reduÃÃo do consumo de energia no mundo, a busca por tecnologias mais eficientes tem se tornado o foco de muitos estudos. Dentre estas tecnologias, pode-se citar a energia solar fotovoltaica e os LEDs, que vem apresentando uma expansÃo nas ultimas dÃcadas. A geraÃÃo fotovoltaica se mostra como uma atrativa fonte de energia, por ser renovÃvel e sua matÃria-prima ser praticamente inesgotÃvel. Enquanto os LEDs apresentam um avanÃo promissor na iluminaÃÃo, sendo utilizado nas mais diversas aplicaÃÃes. Visando a integraÃÃo destas tecnologias, este trabalho propÃe o estudo de um conversor CC-CC elevador com capacitor comutado (Switched Capacitor - SC) para LEDs, aplicado a sistemas fotovoltaicos autÃnomos. O circuito proposto se difere de outras topologias SC por inserir um indutor em sÃrie com a fonte de entrada, o qual pode operar no modo de conduÃÃo descontÃnua (MCD), reduzindo as perdas por comutaÃÃo, ou no modo de conduÃÃo contÃnua (MCC), possibilitando a reduÃÃo das perdas por conduÃÃo do circuito. O conversor à acionado atravÃs da modulaÃÃo por frequÃncia, a qual à obtida em funÃÃo da tensÃo de entrada. Por este motivo, a corrente nos LEDs pode ser estabilizada sem a necessidade de sensores ou de realimentaÃÃo. O protÃtipo desenvolvido em laboratÃrio foi projetado para uma luminÃria de 54 W e operando em alta frequÃncia (atà 165 kHz), possibilitando a reduÃÃo do volume do circuito. Os resultados experimentais obtidos do circuito MCD e MCC sÃo analisados e validam a proposta, mostrando que o conversor apresenta rendimento elevado

O presente trabalho aborda a análise e o desenvolvimento de conversores CC-CC com alto ganho de tensão, para aplicações com fontes de energia de baixíssima tensão, porém capazes de fornecer altas correntes, como: painéis fotovoltaicos, células a combustível e baterias. O principal objetivo deste trabalho é elevar a tensão de uma única célula a combustível até um nível adequado de tensão para realizar a carga de uma bateria com tensão nominal de aproximadamente 12 V, de modo eficiente, com baixa ondulação na corrente de entrada do conversor e com baixa ondulação na tensão de saída. Para alcançar o objetivo proposto, dezenas de topologias de conversores foram estudadas, analisadas, simuladas e implementadas. O trabalho também apresenta uma comparação entre topologias de conversores CC-CC que realizam a transferência de energia por meio de indutores acoplados, com uma topologia de conversor que opera com transferência direta de energia por meio de um transformador. Por fim, os resultados experimentais são apresentados com o intuito de validar os resultados simulados e teóricos. / This work shows the analysis and development of DC-DC converters with high voltage gain, for applications with energy sources of low input voltage, but capable of providing high currents, such as: photovoltaic panels, fuel cells and batteries. The main objective of this work is to raise the voltage of a single fuel cell to a suitable vol-tage level to efficiently charge a battery with rated voltage of approximately 12 V, with low current ripple in the converter and with low output voltage ripple. To achieve the proposed objective, dozens of topologies of converters were studied, analyzed, simulated and implemented. This work shows a comparison between topologies of DC-DC converters that perform power transfer via coupled inductors, with a converter topology operating with direct energy transfer through a transformer. Finally, experimental results are presented in order to validate the theoretical and simulated results.

The main goal of this project was an optimization of DC-DC converter design from company Meatest with regards to its efficiency, minimalizing power loses and radiated electromagnetic inference, while maintaining its price on reasonable level. The first part of this paper is introduction to the most common converter topologies. In the second part, design and optimization of converter are discussed. The third part is about measurement automatization in Simple. Measurements of converter prototype can be found in fourth part.

Ce travail concerne l’étude, le dimensionnement et la réalisation d’un convertisseur continu-continu, associé à une source de type pile à combustible. Pour l’application envisagée, ce convertisseur a un rapport de transformation élevé voisin de 12. De plus l’ondulation de courant est limitée à 1% du courant moyen maximal. La mise en cascade de deux convertisseurs a été retenue pour obtenir un rapport de transformation élevé. Le premier étage est un Boost entrelacé associé à un filtre d’entrée de type L-C, qui permettent de réduire fortement l’ondulation du courant de source. Le second étage est un Boost à trois niveaux qui permet de diminuer les contraintes en tension sur les interrupteurs, et de réduire ainsi les pertes du convertisseur. La commande du convertisseur est ensuite définie en se basant sur l’utilisation d’un régulateur non linéaire. La gestion globale du système est effectuée par la régulation de la tension intermédiaire et de la puissance transitée à la charge en utilisant les principes des commandes « plates ». Enfin un banc de tests à puissance réduite (3 kW) a été réalisé, afin de valider le fonctionnement du convertisseur et les régulations proposées / This work deals with the study, design and building of a DC-DC converter, which is associated with a fuel cell source. According to the application, this converter should have a high voltage ratio which is about 12, and it is able to limit the ripple current of source below 1% of the maximum average current. A cascaded structure composed by two converters has been chosen and allows obtaining a high voltage ratio. The first stage is an interleaved Boost associated with a L-C input filter, to reduce ripple of the current delivered by the source. The second stage is a three-level Boost which reduces the voltage stress of the switches, thereby reducing losses of the converter. The control of the converter is defined basing on the use of a non-linear regulator. Thanks to use the flatness control, the global control is realized through the regulation of the intermediate voltage and of the power transited to the load. Finally, a small power test converter (3 kW) has been realized, in order to validate the converter operation and the proposed control

Les téléphones et tablettes de dernière génération embarquent une puissance de calcul numérique très importante nécessitant une puissance électrique d’alimentation toute aussi significative. Afin de réduire la consommation énergétique des composants numériques complexes des terminaux mobiles, des techniques de modulation dynamique de la tension d’alimentation et de la fréquence de fonctionnement du cœur de calcul numérique sont utilisées. Le convertisseur DC/DC qui assure l’alimentation du cœur numérique doit donc faire face à de forts transitoires de charge, de tension de référence et de tension de source. Le contrôle en mode glissant d’un convertisseur DC/DC permet un bon compromis entre les performances transitoires du convertisseur, la réalisation via des composants analogiques et la puissance dissipée par le contrôleur. C’est pourquoi ce type de contrôle apparait être adapté au contrôle de convertisseurs DC/DC alimentant des cœurs numériques. Cette thèse a pour objet l’étude des alimentations sur carte électronique où le contrôleur et l’étage de puissance sont intégrés sur puce tandis que les composants de puissance passifs sont montés sur le circuit imprimé. Le contrôle en mode glissant à fréquence de découpage fixe d’un convertisseur DC/DC a été démontré avec des résultats significatifs. Cependant les performances transitoires d’un tel convertisseur sont amoindries en raison des délais introduits par une fréquence de découpage fixe. Une nouvelle structure de régulation de fréquence de découpage d’un convertisseur DC/DC contrôlé en mode glissant est proposée dans cette thèse. Cette structure régule la fréquence de découpage moyenne du convertisseur tout en maintenant la réponse transitoire du convertisseur asynchrone par rapport à l’horloge de référence. Une analyse de stabilité qui prend en compte les spécificités d’un tel système est aussi proposée. Le convertisseur a été conçu sur un procédé CMOS 130nm de STMicroelectronics. La fréquence de découpage est maintenue volontairement faible pour conserver un rendement élevé avec des composants passifs externes. Le prototype présente un rendement supérieur à 80% entre 2.4mW et 960mW de puissance de sortie. / Mobile applications necessitate nowadays huge digital-resources. Power management of a digital System-On-Chip (SOC) is based on dynamic voltage scaling. DC/DC converters used to supply the digital SoCs are facing stringent constraints with respect to load-transients, line-transients and reference tracking. Hysteretic control is known as the most convenient control scheme with a fair trade-off between transient performances, analog implementation and power consumption, particularly for one-phase architecture. The thesis focuses on-board DC/DC with a significant constraint on footprint (i.e. on components count and values). Fixed switching-frequency hysteretic control has been experimented with significant results. Transient performances are reduced due to latency introduced in the switching frequency control. The present study focuses on the improvement of the concept as well as its implementation and the analysis of stability. A new analog implementation of the sliding-mode control is presented with switching-frequency control using a particular analog phase-locked-loop but preserve transient performances. The DC/DC converter is implemented in CMOS 130nm by STMicroelectronics. The switching frequency range has been voluntarily limited and excludes the possible integration of passive components for the sake of silicon access. A hybrid demonstrator is presented with efficiency higher than 80\% between 2.4 mW and 960 mW output power.

Ces dernières années, la fiabilité et la continuité de service des chaînes de traction sont devenus des défis majeurs afin que les véhicules électriques puissent accéder au marché grand public de l’automobile. En effet, la présence de défauts dans les chaînes de traction peut conduire à des dysfonctionnements dans les véhicules et ainsi réduire ses performances par rapport aux véhicules conventionnels. Dans l’hypothèse où des défauts électriques se produisaient, les chaînes de traction des véhicules électriques à pile à combustible devraient inclure des topologies et/ou contrôles tolérants aux défauts pour les différents convertisseurs DC/DC et DC/AC. Dans le cadre de ce travail de recherche, un focus est fait sur le convertisseur DC/DC associé à la pile à combustible de la chaine de traction. Ce dernier doit répondre aux problématiques majeures des applications véhicule électrique à pile à combustible à savoir : faible masse et petit volume, haute efficacité énergétique, réduction de l’ondulation de courant d’entrée et fiabilité. A la base d’une recherche bibliographique poussée sur les structures non-isolées et isolées appropriées pour des applications PàC, une topologie de convertisseur DC/DC entrelacé a été choisie permettant de respecter les contraintes des véhicules électriques à pile à combustible.Ce travail de thèse a ensuite consisté à dimensionner et contrôler la structure de convertisseur DC/DC tolérante aux défauts choisie pour les véhicules à PàC. Des algorithmes de gestion des modes dégradés de ce convertisseur ont été développés et implémentés expérimentalement. A ce titre, l’interaction PàC-convertisseur DC/DC a été étudiée. Une approche théorique, de simulation et expérimentale a été mise en oeuvre pour mener à bien ce travail. / Over the last years, reliability and continuity of service of powertrains have become major challenge so that the fuel cell electric vehicles (CFEV) can access to the mass automotive market. Indeed, the presence of faults in powertrains can lead up to malfunctions in the vehicle and consequently reduce its performances compared with conventional vehicles. In the case of electrical faults, powertrains of FCEV have to include fault tolerant topology and/or control for the different DC/DC and DC/AC converters. Within the framework of this research work, the study is focused on DC/DC converter combined with a Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC). The DC/DC converter must respond to challenging issues in FCEV applications such as: low weight and small volume, high energy efficiency, fuel cell current ripple reduction and reliability. Basing on a thorough bibliographical study on non-isolated and isolated DC/DC converter topologies, an interleaved DC/DC boost converter has been chosen, meeting the FCEV requirements.The purpose of this thesis has then consisted in sizing and controlling the chosen fault-tolerant DC/DC converter topology for FCEVs. Algorithms for degraded mode management of this converter have been developed and implemented experimentally. As such, the interaction between PEMFC and interleaved DC/DC boost converter has been investigated. A theoretical approach, simulation and experimental results have been carried out to complete this work.