京都大学 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(生命科学) / 甲第24272号 / 生博第486号 / 新制||生||64(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院生命科学研究科高次生命科学専攻 / (主査)教授 松本 智裕, 教授 高田 穣, 教授 原田 浩 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy in Life Sciences / Kyoto University / DFAM

The study of natural variation is a principle component of biology. One process that affects levels of natural variation is meiotic recombination—the process by which homologous chromosomes break and interchange genetic information with one another during the formation of gametes. Surprisingly, this factor that shapes levels of natural variation across the genome itself presents with a great deal of variation. That variation manifests itself at many levels: within genomes, between individual organisms, across populations, and among species. The factors and mechanisms responsible for the non-random patterning of recombination events across the genome remain particularly elusive in most cases. Herein, I utilize a combination of bioinformatic and molecular genetic approaches to better explain recombination patterning. I explore several factors that are now known to contribute to the distribution of recombination events across genomes. In particular, I demonstrate that transcriptional activity during meiosis is associated with, and partially predictive of crossing over events in Drosophila melanogaster. Additionally, I present a model which is capable of accounting for approximately 40% of the variation in crossover rates in Drosophila based on the localization of several previously identified DNA motifs. Lastly, I present preliminary data describing how recombination patterns are altered under naturally stressful conditions, a key insight that is necessary for uniting our findings at one level of variation with the many others. These findings support a multifactorial model for crossover distribution that includes both genetic and epigenetic factors and will further progress the field in developing a comprehensive understanding of recombination localization.

Les cellules utilisent deux stratégies principales pour réparer les cassures double-brin (CDB) de l’ADN : la recombinaison homologue (RH) et la ligature d’extrémités non homologues (NHEJ). D’autres voies de réparation plus minoritaires existent qui mènent nécessairement à des altérations génétiques : Single Strand Annealing (SSA) et Alternative End Joining (A-EJ). Nous avons proposé que le choix entre les mécanismes de réparation des CDB nécessite deux étapes : 1) la compétition entre C-NHEJ et la résection, 2) sur les extrémités d’ADN résectées, la compétition entre RH, A-EJ et SSA. Ici, nous avons étudié la régulation de la deuxième étape de ce choix. En outre, la létalité synthétique a été décrite entre RAD52 et BRCA2/PALB2. Étant donné que BRCA2 et PALB2 sont nécessaires pour le chargement de RAD51 sur l’ADN simple brin, cela suggère que la formation d’un nucléofilament RAD51/ADNsb ordonné et RAD52 sont des acteurs essentiels dans le choix de la réparation à la deuxième étape. Nous avons trouvé que l’extinction de RAD51 ou BRCA2 stimule à la fois le SSA et EJ, d’une manière épistatique et que RAD52 contrôle la stimulation de SSA et A-EJ, en absence de RAD51. De plus, par séquençage haut débit, nous montrons que l’inhibition de RAD51 induit une instabilité génomique médiée par la microhomologie au niveau du génome. Cependant l’inhibition de RH n’est pas la réparation directe suffisante vers SSA et A-EJ. En effet, en utilisant des mutants dominants négatifs de RAD51, nous avons trouvé que les mutants du site de fixation/hydrolyse de l’ATP inhibent la RH et stimulent le SSA et que la chimère SMRAD51, qui inhibe la RH, inhibe également le SSA et EJ. Par TEM, nous avons observé que SMRAD51 perturbe spécifiquement la structure de l’ADNsb/SMRAD51. De l’autre côté, deux mutants d’hydrolyse de l’ATP de RAD51 ont montré que la liaison à l’ATP et l’hydrolyse d’ATP sont nécessaires pour une charge efficace de RAD51 sur l’ADN endommagé, dans les cellules vivantes. Ces deux mutants d’ATP ne se fixent pas à l’ADN en opposition à SMRAD51. Enfin, nous montrons que RAD51 n’empêche pas la résection étendue, mais que, in vitro, la protéine RAD51 empêche l’annealing de l’ADNsb complémentaire. Au total, les données montrent que RAD51 joue effectivement un rôle crucial dans la deuxième étape du choix de la voie de réparation des CDB à travers deux mécanismes distincts : 1- il déclenche la RH par son activité catalytique, 2- mail il empêche également les mécanismes non conservateurs dépendants de RAD52, SSA et A-EJ, en altérant l’étape de l’annealing. Par conséquent, le choix en deuxième étape entre la RH et les mécanismes mutagènes, SSA et A-EJ, est orchestré par un antagonisme entre RAD51 et RAD52. / Cells use two primary strategies to repair DNA double-strand break (DSB): Homologous Recombination (HR) and Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). Beside other mechanisms exist that necessarily lead to genetic alterations: Single Strand Annealing (SSA) and Alternative End Joining (A-EJ). We have proposed that the choice between DSB repair mechanisms requires two steps: 1) competition between C-NHEJ and resection; 2) on resected DNA ends, competition between HR, A-EJ and SSA. Herein we investigated the regulation of the second step of this choice. Furthermore, synthetic lethality has been described between RAD52 and BRCA2/PALB2. Since BRCA2/PALB2 are required for the loading of RAD51 onto the ssDNA, suggesting that both the formation of an ordered RAD51/ssDNA nucleofilament and RAD52 are central players in the choice of repair at the 2nd step.We found that silencing RAD51 or BRCA2 stimulate both SSA and EJ, in an epistatic manner and that silencing RAD51 induced microhomology mediated genomic instability at a genome wide level. Moreover, we show that RAD52 controls the stimulation of SSA and A-EJ, upon RAD51 silencing. However inhibition of HR is not sufficient redirect repair toward SSA and A-EJ. Indeed, using dominant negative mutants of RAD51 we found that the chimera SMRAD51, which inhibits HR, also inhibits SSA and EJ. By TEM we observed that SMRAD51 specifically disrupts the structure of the ssDNA/SMRAD51. On the other side, two ATP hydrolysis mutants of RAD51 showed that ATP binding and hydrolysis is required for efficient loading of RAD51 on damaged DNA, in living cells. These two ATP mutants that do not bind DNA in opposition to SMRAD51, do not inhibit A-EJ and stimulate SSA. Finally we show RAD51 do not prevents extended resection, but that, in vitro, RAD51 protein prevents the annealing of complementary ssDNA.Altogether the data show that RAD51 indeed plays a pivotal role in the second step of DSB repair pathway choice through two separable mechanisms: 1- it triggers HR through its catalytic HR activity 2- but it also prevents RAD52-dependent non-conservative mechanisms SSA and A-EJ, by impairing the annealing step. Therefore, the choice between HR and alternative mutagenic mechanisms A-EJ and SSA (2nd step) is orchestrated by an antagonism between RAD51 and RAD52

Numerous memory studies have demonstrated that epigenetic-mediated transcriptional regulation, such as post-translational histone modifications, is essential to memory formation and maintenance. Moreover, many studies on the mechanisms of memory have focused on fear memories underlying traumatic events, which helps to understand post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, these mainly focus on individuals directly experiencing the event, while different species have shown the ability to learn fear indirectly by observing a conspecific experiencing a trauma. Thus, our understanding of indirect fear learning (IFL)'s characteristics is very limited. The trimethylation of histone 3 lysine 4 (H3K4me3) is an essential regulator of active gene transcription in cells and has been shown to be critical for memory formation in the hippocampus, a major site of memory storage. However, it is unknown how H3K4me3 is coordinated to target genes during memory formation. Monoubiquitination of histone H2B (H2Bubi) is critical for recruiting H3K4me3 to DNA in a gene-specific manner during memory formation in the hippocampus. Furthermore, there is a great overlap between H3K4me3 and phosphorylation of histone H2A.X at serine 139 (H2A.XpS139), a marker to study DNA double-strand break (DSB) loci. DSB is a critical mechanism for solving DNA-related topological issues during transcription and replication, which could be triggered in some immediate early genes (IEGs) by neuronal activity, such as memory consolidation.Here, we used rat fear conditioning paradigms in combination with quantitative molecular assays, such as chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP), and gene editing techniques, like siRNAs and CRISPR-dCas9 manipulations, to study the role of hippocampal 1) H2Bubi and 2) DSBs in contextual fear memory consolidation and reconsolidation, respectively. Additionally, we behaviorally and molecularly characterized IFL and compared it to directly acquired fear subjects. We found that contextual fear conditioning changed the expression of 86 genes in the hippocampus one hour after training. Remarkably, siRNA knockdown of the H2Bubi ligase, Rnf20, abolished changes in all but one of these genes, Per1. Additionally, we report that the loss of Rnf20 in neurons, but not astrocytes, of the hippocampus impaired long-term memory formation. We next found an increase in H2A.XpS139 and H3K4me3 levels in the Npas4, an IEG important for contextual fear memory, promoter region 5 minutes after retrieval. In vivo siRNAmediated knockdown of the enzyme responsible for DSB, topoisomerase II β, prior to retrieval, decreased Npas4 promoter-specific H3K4me3 and H2A.XpS139 levels and impaired long-term memory. Lastly, our data show that both sexes can indirectly acquire fear from either sex using the auditory-cued IFL model. Moreover, our data show that molecular profiles in the amygdala are largely unique to direct or indirect fear learning and vary by sex. Collectively, this data reveals novel roles for histone phosphorylation and ubiquitination in regulating H3K4me3 and memory formation and shows behavioral and molecular differences in each sex based on the way they acquire fear. / Doctor of Philosophy / Changes in epigenetic mechanisms, processes that control the expression of genes without changing the original sequences, play a crucial role in the formation and maintenance of memory. Moreover, many studies on the mechanisms of memory have focused on fear memories underlying traumatic events, helping to understand post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, these majorly focus on individuals directly experiencing the event, while different species have shown the ability to learn fear indirectly by observing a conspecific experiencing a trauma. Thus, our understanding of indirect fear learning (IFL)'s characteristics is very limited. In the present study, we investigated some of these epigenetic mechanisms called histone modifications. In the brain, histone 3 lysine 4 trimethylation (H3K4me3), a histone modification, is critical for memory formation in the hippocampus, a key area for memory storage. However, it is still not fully understood how H3K4me3 is coordinated during memory formation. Another histone modification called H2B monoubiquitination (H2Bubi) helps recruit H3K4me3 to DNA and so is also crucial for memory formation. Here, using rat models, we found that the expression of 86 genes is changed during memory formation in the hippocampus and that this result is almost entirely dependent on the presence of H2Bubi. We also discovered that H2Bubi is critical for longterm memory formation only in neurons of the hippocampus, and not astrocytes (another type of brain cells). Additionally, there is a connection between H3K4me3 and the phosphorylation of histone H2A.X, another epigenetic mechanism that co-occurs with DNA breaks and may serve as a markerfor studying these breaks. DNA breaks play a vital role during gene expression and could be triggered by neuronal activity during memory formation. We observed an increase in H2A.X phosphorylation and H3K4me3 levels in a memory-permissive gene five minutes after memory retrieval. Inhibition of DSBs, prior to retrieval abolished these changes, and impaired long-term memory. This suggests a critical role for DSBs in memory maintenance and that H2A.X phosphorylation is necessary for the recruitment of H3K4me3 to DNA. Lastly, our data demonstrated that both males and females could learn fear indirectly from either sex by observing them undergoing auditory-cued fear conditioning. Additionally, we found distinct molecular patterns in the amygdala, a brain region involved in fear processing, depending on whether fear was directly or indirectly acquired, and it varied between sexes. Collectively, data from this dissertation reveals novel roles for histone modifications in memory formation and shows behavioral and molecular differences in each sex based on the way they acquire fear.

DNA double strand breaks (DSBs), which may occur during DNA replication or due to the action of genotoxic agents, are extremely dangerous DNA lesions as they can cause chromosomal rearrangements and cell death. Therefore, accurate DSB repair is vital for genome stability and cell survival. Two main mechanisms serve to repair DNA DSBs: non-homologous end joining, which re-ligates DNA ends together, and homologous recombination (HR), which restores broken DNA using homologous sequence as a template for repair. One-ended DSBs are a subject for the specialised HR-dependent repair pathway known as break-induced replication (BIR). At low frequency, DNA breaks can also be healed by telomerase, which normally extends telomeres at natural chromosome ends, but may also add de novo telomeres to DSBs due to their similarity to chromosome ends. De novo telomere addition is a deleterious event, which is effectively inhibited by the nuclear Pif1 (nPif1) helicase phosphorylated at the TLSSAES motif in response to DNA damage. In this study, it is reported that the same regulatory motif of nPif1 is also required for DSB repair via BIR. The requirement of the nPif1 TLSSAES sequence in BIR is dependent on the functional DNA damage response (DDR). Thus, nPif1 phosphorylation by the DDR machinery might mediate the role of nPif1 in BIR. In contrast, the nPif1 regulatory motif is not essential for BIR at telomeres in cells lacking telomerase. These observations indicate that the mechanism of nPif1 function in DSB repair via BIR and in BIR at telomeres might be different. In this work, a protocol for nPif1 pull-down was optimized to reveal the mechanism of the phosphorylation-dependent nPif1 functions in cells undergoing DNA repair, i. e. the mechanism of nPif1-mediated inhibition of de novo telomere addition and promoting DSB repair via BIR. In future, this protocol can be used to dissect the role of nPif1 in DNA repair through the identification of its potential interacting partners. The Srs2 helicase negatively regulates HR via dismantling Rad51 filaments. According to preliminary data from the laboratory of Sveta Makovets, Srs2 also promotes de novo telomere addition at DSBs in a Rad51-dependent manner. The work presented here establishes that Srs2 is dispensable for telomerase-mediated addition of TG1-3 repeats to DSBs. Instead, Srs2 is required for the reconstitution of the complementary DNA strand after telomerase action, thus ensuring the completion of de novo telomere addition. Overall, this study demonstrates that recombination-dependent DSB repair and de novo telomere addition share common regulatory components, i. e. the nPif1 helicase phosphorylated in response to DNA damage and the Srs2 helicase. Phosphorylated nPif1 promotes DSB repair via BIR in addition to its known role in inhibition of telomerase at DSBs, whereas Srs2 uses its well established ability to remove Rad51 from ssDNA to promote the restoration of dsDNA and thus to complete de novo telomere addition.

O início e a progressão do carcinoma espinocelular oral (CEO) são caracterizados pela aquisição de alterações genéticas e epigenéticas. A proteína SET é descrita como uma oncoproteína e, recentemente, o seu acúmulo foi mostrado em CEO. Diversas funções têm sido atribuídas à SET, tais como controle do ciclo celular, sobrevivência celular, migração celular, acetilação de histonas, e resposta ao estresse oxidativo. Este contexto sugere a SET como alvo terapêutico, mas primeiramente, é essencial entender a sua ação na tumorigênese e progressão em CEO. A hipótese central no presente estudo refere-se ao papel da SET na instabilidade genômica e reparo de DNA, bem como na regulação epigenética da expressão de miRNA, com impacto no desenvolvimento e progressão de CEO. O silenciamento estável de RNA foi realizado usando plasmídeo contendo short hairpin RNA contra SET (shSET) em linhagens de CEO in vitro (HN12 e Cal27) e in vivo (tumores xenoenxerto de HN12). Efeitos da redução da SET em CEO, in vitro e in vivo, foram avaliados no perfil de metilação (MSP, methylation specific PCR), expressão de miR-9 (qRT-PCR) e reparo de DNA (reparo mismatch e de quebra de fita dupla - DSB). A instabilidade genômica foi abordada por meio de cinco microssatélites (PCR convencional) para avaliar a instabilidade de microssatélites (MSI), e ensaio cometa para avaliar danos ao DNA (SSB, DSB, cross-link, etc.). O status de proteínas envolvidas em reparo de DSB (ATM, BRCA1 e MLH1) foi avaliado por imunofluorescência e Western blotting (WB). A resposta aos danos no DNA (DDR) induzidos por radioterapia (raios-X) foram analisados nas células HN12 por meio de ensaios clonogênico e de ciclo celular; proteínas associadas à apoptose, autofagia, ciclo celular e reparo foram avaliadas por WB. A redução da SET nas células HN12 modificou a transcrição dos loci codificantes do miR-9 por meio da reversão parcial de hipermetilação, tanto in vitro quanto in vivo, para o locus miR-9-1, e in vitro para o miR-9-3, com aumento nos níveis de miR-9 e miR-9*. A análise de 5 microssatélites mostrou alteração no perfil alélico de dois marcadores, D5S346 e D2S123, nas células HN12 shSET e nos tumores xenoenxerto da HN12 shSET (in vivo) em relação aos respectivos controles, o que sugere a presença de MSI e é um indício do papel da SET no reparo de DNA tipo mismatch. A linhagem HN12 shSET apresentou diminuição de danos no DNA e aumento das proteínas de reparo de DSB, MLH1, ATM, p-ATM e BRCA1 em relação a células HN12 shCTRL. Na DDR induzida por raios-X as células HN12 shSET apresentaram nas primeiras 48 horas uma menor perda de viabilidade (menor % em sub G0/G1), com parada em G2/M, maior nível de ATM ativa, aumento dos níveis de p21 e LC3B-II, além de menor clivagem de PARP e caspase-8 em relação as células HN12 shCTRL; isto sugere uma melhor resposta a danos de DSB e ativação de vias de sobrevivência nas células HN12 shSET. Entretanto, após 12 dias de radioterapia as células HN12 shSET mostraram uma tendência a menor sobrevivência. Portanto, os nossos resultados indicam o envolvimento da SET na regulação transcricional do miR-9, nas vias de reparo do tipo mismatch e de DSB em CEO, com potenciais implicações tanto na tumorigênese quanto na progressão da doença. / Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) onset and progression are characterized by acquisition of genetic and epigenetic alterations. SET protein is known as an oncoprotein and, recently, its accumulation was demonstrated in OSCC. Several functions have been attributed to SET, such as cell cycle control, cell survival, cell migration, histone acetylation, and response to oxidative stress. This context outstands SET as a therapeutic target, but first, it is essential to understand its role in tumorigenesis and progression in OSCC. The central hypothesis of this study refers to SET role in genomic instability and DNA repair, as well as miRNA epigenetic regulation, with impact in OSCC development and progression. Stable SET knockdown (shSET) was achieved using short hairpin RNA against SET mRNA in vitro (HN12 and Cal27, OSCC cell lines) and in vivo (HN12 xenografts tumors). Effects of SET knockdown were assessed in OSCC, in vitro e in vivo, regarding DNA methylation (MSP, methylation specific PCR) and expression of miR-9 (qRT-PCR), and DNA repair (mismatch and double-strand breaks/DSB repair). Genomic instability was addressed by means of five microsatellites (conventional PCR) to assess microsatellite instability (MSI), and comet assay to assess DNA damage (SSB, DSB, cross-link, etc.). The status of proteins involved in DSB repair (ATM, BRCA1 and MLH1) was assessed by immunofluorescence and Western blotting (WB). The DNA damage response (DDR) induced by ionizing radiation (X-rays) was assessed in HN12 cells through clonogenic and cell cycle assays; proteins associated with apoptosis, autophagy, cell cycle and repair were assessed by WB. SET knockdown in HN12 cells modified miR-9 transcription through hypermethylation partial reversal for miR-9-1 locus, both in vitro and in vivo, and for miR-9-3 in vitro, with increase of miR-9 and miR-9* levels. Analysis of 5 microsatellites showed changes in the allelic profile of two markers, D5S346 and D2S123, in HN12 shSET cells (in vitro) and HN12 shSET xenografts tumors (in vivo) compared to their controls, suggesting MSI and it\'s a clue of SET role in mismatch repair. HN12 shSET cells showed decreased DNA damage and increased DSB repair protein levels (MLH1, ATM, p-ATM and BRCA1) compared to HN12 shCTRL. In the first 48 hours, HN12 shSET X-rays-induced DDR showed lower loss of viability (lower % in subG0/G1), increased G2/M checkpoint, higher levels of active ATM, p21, LC3B-II, and less PARP and caspase-8 cleavage than HN12 shCTRL. These results suggest a higher efficiency of DSB damage response and activation of survival pathways in the presence of SET knockdown. However, 12 days after radiotherapy, HN12 shSET cells presented a tendency for higher intrinsic radiosensitivity in relation to control. Therefore, our findings indicate a SET involvement in miR-9 transcriptional regulation, and in mismatch and DSB repair, with potential implications in oral tumorigenesis and progression.

O início e a progressão do carcinoma espinocelular oral (CEO) são caracterizados pela aquisição de alterações genéticas e epigenéticas. A proteína SET é descrita como uma oncoproteína e, recentemente, o seu acúmulo foi mostrado em CEO. Diversas funções têm sido atribuídas à SET, tais como controle do ciclo celular, sobrevivência celular, migração celular, acetilação de histonas, e resposta ao estresse oxidativo. Este contexto sugere a SET como alvo terapêutico, mas primeiramente, é essencial entender a sua ação na tumorigênese e progressão em CEO. A hipótese central no presente estudo refere-se ao papel da SET na instabilidade genômica e reparo de DNA, bem como na regulação epigenética da expressão de miRNA, com impacto no desenvolvimento e progressão de CEO. O silenciamento estável de RNA foi realizado usando plasmídeo contendo short hairpin RNA contra SET (shSET) em linhagens de CEO in vitro (HN12 e Cal27) e in vivo (tumores xenoenxerto de HN12). Efeitos da redução da SET em CEO, in vitro e in vivo, foram avaliados no perfil de metilação (MSP, methylation specific PCR), expressão de miR-9 (qRT-PCR) e reparo de DNA (reparo mismatch e de quebra de fita dupla - DSB). A instabilidade genômica foi abordada por meio de cinco microssatélites (PCR convencional) para avaliar a instabilidade de microssatélites (MSI), e ensaio cometa para avaliar danos ao DNA (SSB, DSB, cross-link, etc.). O status de proteínas envolvidas em reparo de DSB (ATM, BRCA1 e MLH1) foi avaliado por imunofluorescência e Western blotting (WB). A resposta aos danos no DNA (DDR) induzidos por radioterapia (raios-X) foram analisados nas células HN12 por meio de ensaios clonogênico e de ciclo celular; proteínas associadas à apoptose, autofagia, ciclo celular e reparo foram avaliadas por WB. A redução da SET nas células HN12 modificou a transcrição dos loci codificantes do miR-9 por meio da reversão parcial de hipermetilação, tanto in vitro quanto in vivo, para o locus miR-9-1, e in vitro para o miR-9-3, com aumento nos níveis de miR-9 e miR-9*. A análise de 5 microssatélites mostrou alteração no perfil alélico de dois marcadores, D5S346 e D2S123, nas células HN12 shSET e nos tumores xenoenxerto da HN12 shSET (in vivo) em relação aos respectivos controles, o que sugere a presença de MSI e é um indício do papel da SET no reparo de DNA tipo mismatch. A linhagem HN12 shSET apresentou diminuição de danos no DNA e aumento das proteínas de reparo de DSB, MLH1, ATM, p-ATM e BRCA1 em relação a células HN12 shCTRL. Na DDR induzida por raios-X as células HN12 shSET apresentaram nas primeiras 48 horas uma menor perda de viabilidade (menor % em sub G0/G1), com parada em G2/M, maior nível de ATM ativa, aumento dos níveis de p21 e LC3B-II, além de menor clivagem de PARP e caspase-8 em relação as células HN12 shCTRL; isto sugere uma melhor resposta a danos de DSB e ativação de vias de sobrevivência nas células HN12 shSET. Entretanto, após 12 dias de radioterapia as células HN12 shSET mostraram uma tendência a menor sobrevivência. Portanto, os nossos resultados indicam o envolvimento da SET na regulação transcricional do miR-9, nas vias de reparo do tipo mismatch e de DSB em CEO, com potenciais implicações tanto na tumorigênese quanto na progressão da doença. / Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) onset and progression are characterized by acquisition of genetic and epigenetic alterations. SET protein is known as an oncoprotein and, recently, its accumulation was demonstrated in OSCC. Several functions have been attributed to SET, such as cell cycle control, cell survival, cell migration, histone acetylation, and response to oxidative stress. This context outstands SET as a therapeutic target, but first, it is essential to understand its role in tumorigenesis and progression in OSCC. The central hypothesis of this study refers to SET role in genomic instability and DNA repair, as well as miRNA epigenetic regulation, with impact in OSCC development and progression. Stable SET knockdown (shSET) was achieved using short hairpin RNA against SET mRNA in vitro (HN12 and Cal27, OSCC cell lines) and in vivo (HN12 xenografts tumors). Effects of SET knockdown were assessed in OSCC, in vitro e in vivo, regarding DNA methylation (MSP, methylation specific PCR) and expression of miR-9 (qRT-PCR), and DNA repair (mismatch and double-strand breaks/DSB repair). Genomic instability was addressed by means of five microsatellites (conventional PCR) to assess microsatellite instability (MSI), and comet assay to assess DNA damage (SSB, DSB, cross-link, etc.). The status of proteins involved in DSB repair (ATM, BRCA1 and MLH1) was assessed by immunofluorescence and Western blotting (WB). The DNA damage response (DDR) induced by ionizing radiation (X-rays) was assessed in HN12 cells through clonogenic and cell cycle assays; proteins associated with apoptosis, autophagy, cell cycle and repair were assessed by WB. SET knockdown in HN12 cells modified miR-9 transcription through hypermethylation partial reversal for miR-9-1 locus, both in vitro and in vivo, and for miR-9-3 in vitro, with increase of miR-9 and miR-9* levels. Analysis of 5 microsatellites showed changes in the allelic profile of two markers, D5S346 and D2S123, in HN12 shSET cells (in vitro) and HN12 shSET xenografts tumors (in vivo) compared to their controls, suggesting MSI and it\'s a clue of SET role in mismatch repair. HN12 shSET cells showed decreased DNA damage and increased DSB repair protein levels (MLH1, ATM, p-ATM and BRCA1) compared to HN12 shCTRL. In the first 48 hours, HN12 shSET X-rays-induced DDR showed lower loss of viability (lower % in subG0/G1), increased G2/M checkpoint, higher levels of active ATM, p21, LC3B-II, and less PARP and caspase-8 cleavage than HN12 shCTRL. These results suggest a higher efficiency of DSB damage response and activation of survival pathways in the presence of SET knockdown. However, 12 days after radiotherapy, HN12 shSET cells presented a tendency for higher intrinsic radiosensitivity in relation to control. Therefore, our findings indicate a SET involvement in miR-9 transcriptional regulation, and in mismatch and DSB repair, with potential implications in oral tumorigenesis and progression.

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Increased mutagenesis is a hallmark of cancers. On the other hand, this can trigger the generation of polymorphisms and lead to evolution. Lately, it has become clear that one of the major sources of increased mutation rates in the genome is chromosomal break formation and repair. A variety of factors can contribute to the generation of breaks in the genome. A paradoxical source of breaks is the sequence composition of the genomic DNA itself. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic genomes contain sequence motifs capable of adopting secondary structures often found to be potent inducers of double strand breaks culminating into rearrangements. These regions are therefore termed fragile sequence motifs. Here, we demonstrate that in addition to being responsible for triggering chromosomal rearrangements, inverted repeats and GAA/TTC repeats are also potent sources of mutagenesis. Repeat-induced mutagenesis extends up to 8 kb on either side of the break point. Remarkably, error-prone repair of the break by Polζ reconstitutes the repeats making them a long term source of mutagenesis. Despite its negative connotations for genome stability, the mechanisms underlying the unstable nature of double strand break repair pathways are not known. Previous studies have demonstrated that break induced replication (BIR), a mechanism employed to repair broken chromosomes with only one repairable end, is highly mutagenic, undergoes frequent template switching and often yields half-crossovers. In the work presented here, we show that the instabilities inherent to BIR can be attributed to its unusual mode of synthesis. We determined that BIR proceeds via a migrating bubble with long stretches of single-stranded DNA and culminates with conservative inheritance of the newly synthesized DNA. We propose that the mechanisms described here might be important for generation of repair-associated mutagenesis in higher organisms. Secondary structure forming repeats like inverted repeats have been found to be enriched in cancer cells. These motifs often constitute chromosomal rearrangement hot-spots and demonstrate the phenomenon of kataegis. This study provides a mechanistic insight into how such breakage-prone motifs contribute to hypermutability of cancer genomes.

DNA DSBs are most toxic to cells because they can lead to genomic rearrangements and even cell death. Most DSBs induced by ionizing radiation or radiomimetic drugs such as calicheamicin and bleomycin, bear 3′-phosphate or 3′- PG moieties that must be removed to allow subsequent gap filling and ligation. DSBs can be repaired by two main pathways: the homologous recombination (HR) pathway and the non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) pathway, NHEJ is the primary repair pathway in mammalian cells. While HR repairs single strand breaks (SSBs) or DSBs accurately by using an undamaged copy of the sequence mostly at late S phase and G2 phase, the NHEJ pathway repairs DSBs without the requirement for sequence homology in a processing that may be error-free or error- prone and is most active at G1 phase. TDP1 is a DNA repair enzyme in both pathways, It associates with DNA SSB repair proteins XRCC1 and DNA ligase III and plays a role in processing of topoisomerase I- mediated SSBs. Our early results suggested that TDP1 also can remove protruding 3’- PG and other 3’ blocks from DSBs ends in vitro. A homozygous H493R mutation in the active site of TDP1 causes spinocerebellar ataxia with axonal neuropathy (SCAN1), a rare autosomal recessive genetic disease with neurological symptoms including peripheral neuropathy. DNA damage and misrepair can be determined by measuring the incidence of chromosomal aberrations such as rings, breaks, dicentrics, acentric fragments, and translocations in metaphase cells, and micronuclei in interphase cells. To assess the possible role of TDP1 in DSB repair in intact cells, the radiosensitivity of SCAN1 cells was determined by using a dose-fractionation method of irradiation. The data indicated that, when exposed to fractionated radiation doses, the SCAN1 cells were more sensitive than normal cells. Moreover, following treatment of cells with calicheamicin, SCAN1 cells showed a significantly higher incidence of dicentric chromosomes, acentric fragments, and micronuclei compared to normal cells, indicating that calicheamicin-induced DSBs were repaired less accurately and less efficiently, or more slowly in SCAN1 cells than in normal cells. All these results are consistent with a role for TDP1 in repair of 3’-PG DSBs in vivo. Oxidative stress is thought to induce replicative senescence and DNA damage in mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEFs). To determine the possible roles of oxidative stress on Tdp1-deficient MEFs, Tdp1-knockout MEFs and normal MEFs were cultured in 20% oxygen (atmospheric) and 3% (physiological) oxygen. The data from growth assays indicated that normal MEFs showed replicative senescence in 20% oxygen but not in 3% oxygen. Tdp1-knockout MEFs showed very poor growth compared to Tdp1 normal MEFs in both oxygen conditions, clearly suggesting an influence of repair of Tdp1 on oxidative stress induced DNA-DSBs in MEFs. Taken together, our results indicated that TDP1 is capable of removing protruding 3’-PG from DSB ends in intact cells. Moreover, DSBs induced by oxidative stress were repaired more slowly or inefficiently in MEFs when Tdp1 is absent, resulting in cell cycle arrest and poor cell growth.