Bakgrund: Ett meningiom är en godartad tumör och utgör 15-20 % av alla primära hjärntumörer. Datortomografi (DT) och magnetresonanstomografi (MR) är de vanligaste undersökningsmetoderna när det gäller att diagnosticera meningiom. Positronemissionstomografi (PET) används för både diagnosticering och stadieindelning av cancer. De allra flesta meningiom har somatostatinreceptorer (SR) som visat sig ta upp [68Gallium]-DOTA-D Phe1-Tyr3-Octreotide (68Ga-DOTATOC) vid PET-bildtagning vilket skapat en möjlighet att bedöma meningiom med hjälp av PET-bildtagning. En bra bedömning av meningiomet är av stor vikt för att kunna planera patientens behandling.   Syfte: Att ta reda på hur användbart MR och 68Ga-DOTATOC är för att upptäcka samt avgöra volym på meningiom.   Metod: En litteraturstudie genomfördes med hjälp av databasen PubMed. Nio vetenskapliga artiklar inkluderades i litteraturstudien.   Resultat: I resultatet framkom det att perimetermetoden är bättre än diametermetoden för att mäta volym med hjälp av MR-bildtagning. Bildtagning med 68Ga-DOTATOC PET/DT ger en kompletterande bild av meningiomets volym som ofta är mindre än volym uppmätt med MR-bildtagning. 68Ga-DOTATOC PET/DT upptäcker fler meningiom, särskilt i komplexa fall där meningiomet infiltrerat skelettet. MR-bildtagning kunde även skilja på olika typer av meningiom (benigna och maligna). Slutsats: Det är möjligt att upptäcka samt beräkna volym på meningiom med MR-bildtagning och 68Ga-DOTATOC PET/DT. Med MR-bildtagning finns även möjligheten att klassificera meningiomets stadie. Enligt denna studies resultat kompletterar 68Ga-DOTATOC starkt information från både MR och DT-bildtagning.

The existing body of knowledge attributes to informal land transactions in sub-Saharan African cities observed problems in city neighbourhoods. However, the dearth of empirically insightful studies of how this eventuates continues to leave a vacuum in terms of practical solutions. But it is commonly held that bureaucratic intervention offers a way out. Substantial resources, often backed by donor agencies, are therefore being spent in revamping bureaux and governmental bodies in a bid to solving the problems. This thesis sets as its central aim to identify and establish the costs to agents of the real causes of the problems. It also aims to assess the economic impact of formal policy measures on agents and recommends feasible approaches to market regulations. To address the objectives insights from property rights, transactions costs and public choice economics are brought to bear. Based on a survey of market participants of sampled informal neighbourhoods in Accra, the capital city of Ghana, it employs regression and discriminant analyses to analyse the data generated. In the process helpful insights are gained. It has been possible to put some figures to the extent of costs that lead agents to operate in ways that eventually translate into the problems commonly witnessed. The study finds that actual costs to market participants of government activities are too high to be of any benefit. These costs mainly derive from rent-seeking behaviour which extensive bureaucratic intervention of transactions in urban residential lands bring about. On the basis of the results of the regression analysis, arguments implying inefficiency of informal land markets, specifically relating to the arbitrary nature of prices, are refuted. The futility of the use of compulsory purchase powers to create residential neighbourhoods also emerges from the results of the discriminant analysis. Similarly, efficiency' enhancing bureaucratic interventions in the informal market lead to the diversion of real resources into wasteful rent-seeking expenditures. The sum of these wasteful diversions of resources explains a great deal of the haphazard developments that have come to characterise many neighbourhoods of cities in Sub-Saharan Africa. Market led regulation emerges as the needed focus of future land policy and management strategy. But to work the study calls for the removal of unwarranted market interventions extant at the present moment and the reorganisation of bureaux to be responsible in ways that would induce them to operate efficiently.

This thesis addresses three questions: What are proxy wars? How are proxy wars waged? Why are proxy wars waged? Each research question addresses a gap, a flaw or a deficiency in the current knowledge of proxy wars. Accordingly, each question is matched with a research aim. The first aim is to establish a conceptual and definitional baseline for proxy wars as a point of inquiry. The second seeks to restrict the empirical domain of proxy wars in an effort to enhance our ability to recognise proxy wars in the contemporary security environment. Lastly, the third objective is an analysis of the normative and causal dynamics underpinning party interaction in proxy wars. Taken together, the three research questions form the focus of my research, namely to understand and explain proxy wars as a self-standing form of political violence. I apply my research questions to Africa on a timeline beginning with 1945 leading up to 2011. I build a qualitative dataset, the Proxy War Dataset, which maps the spread of the phenomena across time, space (regions, countries), and conflict indicators (incompatibility). I use it as a descriptive tool to understand proxy wars, as well as a theory-informing source of data. In answering the causality problem, I put forward a theory of distributional violence focused on strategic interaction which yields four distinct logics of distribution of violence in proxy wars: pre-emptive, managerial, retaliative, and cooperative. I probe the theory with a series of four case studies focused on proxy wars in Ethiopia, the country most affected by the phenomena under observation throughout the 1945-2011 timeline.

What happened to Afrikaner nationalism? Did the end of apartheid spell the end of the nationalism with which it had become synonymous? Was the decade that lay between South Africa's first universal suffrage elections of 1994 and the collapse of the Afrikaners' National Party in 2004 the final chapter in the history of Afrikaner nationalism? If so - and that is the question posed in this thesis - how is one to interpret the Afrikaner campaign that gained momentum during that very same decade in defence of Afrikaans - the language that gave the word apartheid to human history? Contra the lay and scholarly consensus, I argue that Afrikaner nationalism has outlived apartheid. What we are witnessing today, if only in certain elite circles, is not the end of Afrikaner nationalism but its revival. To substantiate this claim, chapter 3 of the thesis develops a definitional and theoretical framework from which I argue in chapters 4 and 5, by means of a diachronical comparison, that the latest movement represents a continuation of the Afrikaner nationalist past. First, however, the scene has to be set. Chapters 1 and 2 provide the political and ideological background without which no analysis would be possible of Afrikaner nationalism's consecutive language and cultural movements. It needs to be stressed, though, that while language and cultural activism has the central attention in this study, it also considers the relationship between cultural and political nationalism - both as concepts and as actual movements - and questions the notion of a dichotomy. In seeking a historical explanation for the contemporary Afrikaner movement, I revisit what Kellas regards as the problem that studies of nationalism have classically addressed, namely the relationship between politics, economics and culture "which in any particular case brought about the transition from ethnicity to nationalism"? (1991:35). Focusing on the Afrikaner case, my thesis explores the role of language in these dynamics - something that has not been done in a systematic manner.

Muitos são os objetivos para o controle de carga no comércio exterior. Organismos Internacionais estabelecem programas voltados à segurança física das instalações e navios. Acordos bilaterais entre o Brasil e os Estados Unidos da América estabelecem programas com a ênfase em segurança. Os objetivos do Estado brasileiro representado pela Secretaria da Receita Federal estão voltados primeiramente à regulamentação do mercado com a nacionalização das cargas e seu devido recolhimento de impostos. Para isto utiliza sistemas de alcance nacional como SISCOMEX Importação, Exportação e Trânsito Aduaneiro, para controlar o fluxo das cargas no comércio exterior. Estes sistemas possuem o enfoque nas mercadorias já presentes no território nacional. Outro objetivo é a necessidade de facilitação da burocracia e também a busca por segurança. A preocupação com a segurança deve estar presente nos sistemas informatizados, e aí se adota a certificação digital como forma segura de transmissão dos dados, como na operação física da carga. A operação física, no modal marítimo na importação, inclui a informação do Transportador sobre seu manifesto, a informação do Operador Portuário sobre a descarga efetuada, a informação do Recinto Alfandegado que irá armazenar esta carga. Dois sistemas operam na unidade local da Alfândega do Porto de Santos, a Supervia Eletrônica de Dados, com os Transportadores Marítimos e Operadores e a Declaração de Transferência Eletrônica, com os Operadores Portuários e Recintos. A integração destes sistemas interage dois universos da logística de transporte, o marítimo e o terrestre com a distribuição e armazenagem da carga, tudo sob supervisão das autoridades Portuária e Aduaneira. Mostra-se que esta integração diminui burocracia, aumenta controles, valida dados com benefício a toda comunidade aduaneira. Fornece informações mais seguras para a Autoridade Portuária facilitando o faturamento de seu contrato de privatização. Favorece as interações dos Armadores com a Alfândega, pois possibilita via internet tanto solicitações quanto autorizações. Facilita a autorização de transferência de carga para os Recintos diminuindo sua digitação, garante unicidade dos dados da carga em todos intervenientes permitindo sua alteração no banco de dados somente após o procedimento legal e permite também o fechamento do manifesto, conciliando as cargas manifestadas com as descarregadas e também com o despacho aduaneiro a que foi submetida tal mercadoria. / There are many objectives for the load control in the foreign commerce. World Customs Organization establishes programs directed to the physical security of the installations and ships. Bilateral agreements between Brazil and the United States of America establish programs with the emphasis in security. The objectives of the Brazilian State represented by its Custom are focus first in the regulation of the market with the nationalization of loads and its collect taxes. For this it uses systems of national reach as SISCOMEX Importation, Exportation and Customs Transit, to control the flow of loads in the foreign commerce. These systems possess the approach on the merchandise already in the national territory. Another objective is the necessity of facilitation of the bureaucracy and also the search for security. The concern with the security must be present also in the computers systems, where it adopts the digital certification as safe form of transmission of the data, as in the physical operation of the load. The physical operation, in the modal marine in the importation, includes the information of the transporter on its manifesto, the information of the Port Operator on the effected discharge, the information of the Bonded Enclosure that will go to store this load. Two systems operate in the local unit of the Customs of the Santos\' Port, the Electronic Supervia of Data, with the maritime transporters and operators and the Declaration of Electronic Transference, with the Port Operators and Enclosures. The integration of these systems interacts two universes of the logistic of transport, the marine and terrestrial with the distribution and storage of the load, everything under supervision of the authorities of the port and customs. One reveals that this integration diminishes bureaucracy, increases controls, and validates data with benefit for all the customs community. Supplies safer information to the port authority, facilitating the invoicing of its contract of privatization. It favors the interactions of the Ship owners with Customs; therefore it makes possible interaction in such a way thru Internet as much the requests as the authorizations. It facilitates the authorization of the load transference for the Enclosures diminishing its typing, guarantees unicity of the data of the load allowing its alteration in the data base only after the legal procedure and also allows to the closing of the manifesto, conciliating loads revealed with unloaded and also with the customs forwarding the one that was submitted such merchandise.

Muitos são os objetivos para o controle de carga no comércio exterior. Organismos Internacionais estabelecem programas voltados à segurança física das instalações e navios. Acordos bilaterais entre o Brasil e os Estados Unidos da América estabelecem programas com a ênfase em segurança. Os objetivos do Estado brasileiro representado pela Secretaria da Receita Federal estão voltados primeiramente à regulamentação do mercado com a nacionalização das cargas e seu devido recolhimento de impostos. Para isto utiliza sistemas de alcance nacional como SISCOMEX Importação, Exportação e Trânsito Aduaneiro, para controlar o fluxo das cargas no comércio exterior. Estes sistemas possuem o enfoque nas mercadorias já presentes no território nacional. Outro objetivo é a necessidade de facilitação da burocracia e também a busca por segurança. A preocupação com a segurança deve estar presente nos sistemas informatizados, e aí se adota a certificação digital como forma segura de transmissão dos dados, como na operação física da carga. A operação física, no modal marítimo na importação, inclui a informação do Transportador sobre seu manifesto, a informação do Operador Portuário sobre a descarga efetuada, a informação do Recinto Alfandegado que irá armazenar esta carga. Dois sistemas operam na unidade local da Alfândega do Porto de Santos, a Supervia Eletrônica de Dados, com os Transportadores Marítimos e Operadores e a Declaração de Transferência Eletrônica, com os Operadores Portuários e Recintos. A integração destes sistemas interage dois universos da logística de transporte, o marítimo e o terrestre com a distribuição e armazenagem da carga, tudo sob supervisão das autoridades Portuária e Aduaneira. Mostra-se que esta integração diminui burocracia, aumenta controles, valida dados com benefício a toda comunidade aduaneira. Fornece informações mais seguras para a Autoridade Portuária facilitando o faturamento de seu contrato de privatização. Favorece as interações dos Armadores com a Alfândega, pois possibilita via internet tanto solicitações quanto autorizações. Facilita a autorização de transferência de carga para os Recintos diminuindo sua digitação, garante unicidade dos dados da carga em todos intervenientes permitindo sua alteração no banco de dados somente após o procedimento legal e permite também o fechamento do manifesto, conciliando as cargas manifestadas com as descarregadas e também com o despacho aduaneiro a que foi submetida tal mercadoria. / There are many objectives for the load control in the foreign commerce. World Customs Organization establishes programs directed to the physical security of the installations and ships. Bilateral agreements between Brazil and the United States of America establish programs with the emphasis in security. The objectives of the Brazilian State represented by its Custom are focus first in the regulation of the market with the nationalization of loads and its collect taxes. For this it uses systems of national reach as SISCOMEX Importation, Exportation and Customs Transit, to control the flow of loads in the foreign commerce. These systems possess the approach on the merchandise already in the national territory. Another objective is the necessity of facilitation of the bureaucracy and also the search for security. The concern with the security must be present also in the computers systems, where it adopts the digital certification as safe form of transmission of the data, as in the physical operation of the load. The physical operation, in the modal marine in the importation, includes the information of the transporter on its manifesto, the information of the Port Operator on the effected discharge, the information of the Bonded Enclosure that will go to store this load. Two systems operate in the local unit of the Customs of the Santos\' Port, the Electronic Supervia of Data, with the maritime transporters and operators and the Declaration of Electronic Transference, with the Port Operators and Enclosures. The integration of these systems interacts two universes of the logistic of transport, the marine and terrestrial with the distribution and storage of the load, everything under supervision of the authorities of the port and customs. One reveals that this integration diminishes bureaucracy, increases controls, and validates data with benefit for all the customs community. Supplies safer information to the port authority, facilitating the invoicing of its contract of privatization. It favors the interactions of the Ship owners with Customs; therefore it makes possible interaction in such a way thru Internet as much the requests as the authorizations. It facilitates the authorization of the load transference for the Enclosures diminishing its typing, guarantees unicity of the data of the load allowing its alteration in the data base only after the legal procedure and also allows to the closing of the manifesto, conciliating loads revealed with unloaded and also with the customs forwarding the one that was submitted such merchandise.

No description available.

By the end of the Seventeenth century, when the Dutch settlement at the Cape was already firmly established, and the foundation had thus been laid for the present political dominance of the white man in the country, Africa south of the Kunene Okavango and Zambesi Rivers was inhabited by a considerate. number of different native peoples On the basis of racial, linguistic and cultural distinction, these can all be classified into four main stocks, commonly known as the Bushmen, the Hottentots, the Bergdama and the Bantu respectively. The Bushmen are a short, brownish-yellow people, with certain peculiar and racial characteristics, they all speak languages of a uniform, well-defined and easily recognizable type, phonetically remarkable especially for the great prevalence of click consonant; and they practice neither agriculture nor pastoralism, but live in small separate commutative which lead a nomadic hunting and collecting existence.

The joyous advent of democracy in South Africa in 1994 brought real promise of an improvement in the life chances for millions of marginalised South Africans. There was reason for many citizens to have great faith in the new order after decades of sustained struggle. Effective state intervention and the spatial reorganisation of society seemed a realistic prospect in a country blessed with abundant natural resources and an established industrial base. The power of the state to affect change at the grassroots level was however soon compromised by the substitution of the populist Reconstruction and Development Programme with the neoliberal Growth, Employment and Redistribution Strategy (GEAR) by mid 1996. South Africa was now part of the international community and the new government's gaze was directed away from its popular support base. The radical and risky policy shift was influenced by demands of an international investor community and by the dictates of international donor organisations. Announcement of the policy shift was a low profile affair and few citizens had any real comprehension of the impact the shift would have on the capacity of the new ANC government to deliver on its electoral promises. Change in the macro economic policy reverberated within the lower tiers of government and in local authorities. Urban development policy was repeatedly rewritten; first in response to the dictates of the socialist RDP in 1994, and again in response to a neo-liberal GEAR in 1996. In 2000 the fragmented urban management system of appointed officials was replaced by an elected metropolitan government system. This initiated a third, profound shift in the policy context as each metropolitan government sought to formulate its own, context-specific policies. The most recent shift is significant since it has resulted in massive organisational upheaval and restructuring. However, it has opened new laboratories, which generates new opportunities for more responsive and accountable policy-making and planning. These new opportunities emerge against a backdrop in which the comedy of policy shifts that have occurred during the past nine years have resulted in little action and a growing crisis on the ground. Despite the policy shifts, corridor development has remained a constant feature of post apartheid urban development frameworks. Initially it made sense as a mechanism to physically integrate fragmented cities. It fitted a populist agenda, had political currency and was an easy sell. After the adoption of neo-liberal strategies it would receive another label; that of an accessible armature for private investment. Importantly, the latest policy shift in 2000 offered an opportunity to consider the city in a holistic and integrated fashion. This represents the belated death of the Apartheid City, which was characterised by fragmented, sub-regional councils linked to racially defined urban enclaves. New metropolitan governments arguably have greater capacity to facilitate and co-ordinate action in the extended corridor zone than has ever been possible. Effective implementation of a regional capital web of minimal public investment now becomes a distinct possibility. The recent adoption of a metropolitan government system and the associated strategic urban management approach offers an opportunity for reflection and for the construction of an informed vision of the role of urban design in corridor development. Whilst the corridor concept has survived, its purpose has become confused. While not discarding the corridor idea, many proposals that originated during the early post apartheid years are being questioned by new metropolitan governments. The new crisis is largely the result of the private sector having shown reluctance to invest in marginal zones of the city. Since corridors were originally conceived as devices which aim to link marginal zones to the core of opportunity, their capacity to facilitate change is limited by the sustained lack of market interest. While the market remains reluctant to invest in the areas of greatest need in corridors, requirements for improved mobility and access amongst the urban poor have escalated dramatically as millions of migrants from the rural hinterland and the African sub-continent flock to the urban peripheries. Migrants squat on the verges of highways or crowd into the backyards of apartheid-era townships. They are effectively constructing their own informal corridors along lines of access. This dynamic adds to the emerging crisis associated with an uninterested private sector. This thesis responds to the crisis from an urban design perspective. It evaluates the actions of urban designers in the corridor context during the past decade, and tests the perceptions of ordinary citizens who are affected by corridor development. While doing this it questions the predominance of generic approaches to corridor development and draws on insights gained from international fieldwork in Malaysia, Australia and Peru. Finally, it presents a strategic approach that indicates ways in which urban design may realise its potential to become an enabling discipline in the participatory development of the post apartheid integration corridor.

No description available.