The ability of an asphalt mix to heal is an important property that influences the overall fatigue performance of the mix in the field. Micro damage healing in an asphalt mix is a function of several factors such as the physical and chemical properties of the binder, properties of the mixture, level of damage prior to the rest period during which healing occurs, duration of the rest period, temperature, and pressure. This thesis presents details from a two-part study that addresses the following aspects. In the first part of this study, a DSR based test method was developed to measure inherent healing in asphalt binder and a modified form of the Avrami equation was used to model it. In the second part of this study, an experimental and analytical method based on viscoelastic continuum damage theory was developed to characterize the healing in an asphalt composite (fine aggregate matrix) as a function of the level of damage prior to the rest period and the duration of the rest period. The intrinsic healing of three different asphalt binders was measured at three different temperatures and two aging conditions and it was further demonstrated to be the sum of two components: instantaneous strength gain immediately upon wetting and time dependent strength gain. The intrinsic healing results obtained from the DSR tests were demonstrated to be in agreement with the hypothesis that time dependent intrinsic healing increases with an increase in temperature and decreases with aging of the asphalt binder. The overall healing was measured in four different fine aggregate matrix (FAM) asphalt mixes and various tests were performed to quantify overall healing at isothermal and short term aged test conditions. Additionally two different verification tests were also conducted to demonstrate that the percentage healing measured using the proposed method are independent of the sequence of loading or rest periods. Finally, the overall healing results were demonstrated to support the hypothesis that the healing characteristics determined using the proposed test method can be treated as a characteristic material property. / text

A corrosão de armaduras é uma das causas mais comuns de degradação mecânica em estruturas em concreto armado. Esse processo leva à redução da vida útil e, consequentemente, a prejuízos econômicos. Desse modo, o presente trabalho visa contribuir com a análise dos fenômenos associados à degradação mecânica do concreto armado sujeito a processos corrosivos devido à carbonatação e à ação de cloretos. Para tal finalidade, modelos analíticos baseados na segunda lei de Fick são usados para quantificar a difusão de CO2 e de íons cloreto no concreto, os quais permitem determinar o tempo de início da corrosão. A degradação mecânica de estruturas em concreto armado é considerada por meio de um modelo em dano concentrado que contempla perda da rigidez, redução da área de aço e da tensão de escoamento de armaduras devido ao processo corrosivo. A formulação de dano concentrado foi modificada de forma a incluir uma variável de estado de corrosão e uma lei de evolução da corrosão, baseada em equações semi-empíricas disponíveis na literatura. Essas equações determinam a redução no diâmetro das armaduras e a perda da capacidade resistente do aço. O problema da corrosão é formulado como um processo estocástico sendo resolvido por meio do método de simulação de Monte Carlo para dois exemplos: uma viga isostática e um pórtico plano com grau de hiperestaticidade igual a três. A formulação da equação de estado limite é baseada em um valor de dano aceitável. Curvas de probabilidade de início da corrosão e de probabilidade de falha da estrutura são obtidas ao longo de 50 anos. No caso da estrutura hiperestática, o caminho mais provável de falha, também chamado de caminho crítico, é determinado. Observa-se que o processo corrosivo provoca mudanças no caminho crítico, e portanto, deve ser considerado nas análises de reparo estrutural. Mapas de dano e de probabilidade de falha foram desenvolvidos para mostrar as mudanças no comportamento estrutural devido à corrosão. / The reinforcement\'s corrosion is one of the most common causes of mechanical degradation in reinforced concrete structures. This process leads to the reduction of the service life and, consequently, economic loss. Thereby, this study aims to contribute with the analysis of the phenomena associated to the mechanical degradation of reinforced concrete, due to the carbonation and the chloride ions. For this purpose, analytical models based on second Fick\'s law are used to quantify CO2 and chloride ions diffusion, which enables to determine the corrosion time initiation. The mechanical degradation of reinforced concrete structures is modeles by the lumped damage model which accounts for stiffness loss, reinforcement mass loss and yield stress reduction due to the corrosive process. The lumped damage formulation was modified to include the state corrosion variable and the corrosion evolution law based on semi-empirical equations available in the literature. These equations determine the reinforcement\'s diameter reduction and the loss of resistant capacity of the reinforcement\'s bar. The corrosion problem is formulated as a stochastic process and solved by the Monte Carlo simulation for two examples: an isostatic beam and a hyperstatic frame. The limit state functions are based on the acceptable damage value. Curves of probability of corrosion initiation and probability of failure are obtained over a range of 50 years. In the hyperstatic case, the most probable failure path, also named the critical path, is determined. It is observed that the corrosive process causes changes on the critical path and, therefore, it must be accounted on structural repair analysis. Damage and probability of failure maps were developed to show the changes on the structural behavior due to the corrosion.

<p>Föreliggande avhandling omfattar en fallstudie av utmattningsrisken för järnvägsbroarna mellan Stockholm Central och Söder Mälarstrand. Ett stort antal utmattningssprickor i broarna över Söderström och Söder Mälarstrand har sedan länge varit kända. I samband med en bärighetsutredning av sträckan har ett stort antal anslutningspunkter i samtliga broar identifierats som kritiska avseende utmattningsrisk. Sträckan är den mest trafikerade i Sverige och de förenklade beräkningsmetoder som anges i Banverkets föreskrift för bärighetsberäkningar är i vissa fall inte tillämpliga.</p><p>De formella bärighetsberäkningarna har visat på flerfaldiga överskridanden i utnyttjandegrad gällande utmattning. I de punkter som beräkningarna visar störst risk för utmattning har inga sprickor påträffats, trots omfattande förbandsbesiktningar. Beräkningarna baseras på typiserade spänningskollektiv och givet antal spännings­växlingar, oberoende av den aktuella trafikmängden. Enligt bärighetsnormen ges möjlighet att beakta den verkliga trafikmängden baserat på historiskt bruttotonnage och typiserade trafiklaster. Dessa beräkningar har utförts och visar på ännu större risk för utmattning, jämfört med den förenklade metoden. I syfte att på ett ännu mer nyanserat sätt uppskatta utmattningsrisken har en metod använts, baserat på uppskattning av den faktiska trafikmängden och dess fördelningar. Beräkningarna baseras på trafikdata tillgänglig från Banverket. Metoden är tillämplig på andra järnvägsbroar på andra sträckor.</p><p>Utöver teoretiska beräkningar har töjningsmätningar utförts. Under 2006 utförde dåvarande Carl Bro AB töjningsmätningar på bro över Söder Mälarstrand och viadukt söder om Söder Mälarstrand, avseende några enskilda tågöverfarter. Under 2008 utförde KTH Brobyggnad omfattande töjningsmätningar på bro över Söderström, avseende all trafik under en månads tid.</p> / <p>The present thesis comprises a case study of the risk of fatigue of the railway bridges chaining between Stockholm Central Station and the district Söder Mälarstrand. A large number of fatigue-related cracks in the bridges at Söderström and Söder Mälarstrand have been known for a long time. During a capacity assessment of the current bridges, a large number of connections have been identified as critical concerning fatigue resistance. The route is the most frequent in all of Sweden and the simplified methods of fatigue assessment defined by Banverket may not always be applicable.</p><p>A conventional capacity assessment has shown numerous exceeds in fatigue resistance, using the stated safety margins. No fatigue cracks have been identified at the locations showing the largest theoretical risk of fatigue, in spite of extensive investigations. The conventional calculations are based on a uniform stress collective and a fixed number of stress cycles, independent of the actual traffic volume. According to the regulations stated by Banverket, the assessment may optionally be performed using historical data of the gross tonnage and standardised traffic loading. Such calculations have been undertaken and show even greater risk of fatigue, compared to the conventional assessment. To estimate the risk of fatigue in more detail, a method has been used, based on estimations of the real traffic volume and its distributions. The analysis is based on available data of the traffic volume and may be applied to other railway bridges on other locations.</p><p>Besides theoretical analyses, field measurements have been performed. In 2006, former Carl Bro AB carried out strain gauge measurements on the bridge passing Söder Mälarstrand and the viaduct south of Söder Mälarstrand. The measurements comprised a small amount of individual train passages. During 2008, the division of Structural Design and Bridges at KTH performed an extensive field measurement programme on the bridge passing Söderström. Continuous measurements collecting data of all traffic during a period of one month was performed.</p>

Η διατριβή μπορεί να χωριστεί σε δύο μέρη. Το πρώτο μέρος αφορά την παρουσίαση του θεωρητικού υποβάθρου του μαθηματικού προσομοιώματος που χρησιμοποιήθηκε για να περιγράψει τη βλάβη που μπορεί να εμφανιστεί σε μια κατασκευή έπειτα από την επιβολή δυναμικής ή στατικής φόρτισης. Το προσομοίωμα αυτό χρησιμοποιήθηκε στην παρούσα διατριβή για την ανάλυση της γέφυρας της Κόνιτσας και γι’ αυτό το λόγο κρίθηκε απαραίτητη η αναφορά στο θεωρητικό υπόβαθρο, πάνω στο οποίο στηρίζεται. Το δεύτερο μέρος της διατριβής αφορά τη σεισμική ανάλυση της γέφυρας της Κόνιτσας, την αξιολόγηση των αποτελεσμάτων και τη διαδικασία ενίσχυσής της, καθώς και τη μετέπειτα σύγκριση των αποτελεσμάτων. Έτσι λοιπόν, στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο γίνεται αρχικά μια ιστορική ανασκόπηση της τοιχοποιίας ενώ στην συνέχεια γίνεται αναφορά τόσο στις κατηγορίες της όσο και στην τοιχοποιία ως υλικό δόμησης. Επιπλέον, γίνεται μία σύντομη περιγραφή των μηχανικών ιδιοτήτων της τοιχοποιίας. Τέλος, παρουσιάζονται σύντομα οι θεμελιώδεις παραδοχές και οι στόχοι του προσομοιώματος που χρησιμοποιήθηκε και εφαρμόστηκε στην παρούσα εργασία. Το δεύτερο κεφάλαιο, αποτελεί το εισαγωγικό μέρος στο οποίο παρουσιάζεται λεπτομερέστερα τα στοιχεία μηχανικής της τοιχοποιίας. Αρχικά, γίνεται αναφορά στην ταξινόμηση της τοιχοποιίας, ως προς τους τρόπους δόμησης, ενώ στην συνέχεια αναλύονται οι μηχανικές της ιδιότητες. Στις υποπαραγράφους του δευτέρου κεφαλαίου, αναλύεται δηλαδή η αντοχή της τοιχοποιίας σε μονοαξονική θλίψη, σε πολυαξονική θλίψη, η εφελκυστική αντοχή σε κάμψη, η διατμητική αντοχή καθώς και η αντοχή υπό τυχούσα επίπεδη καταπόνηση. Τέλος παρουσιάζονται τα ελαστικά χαρακτηριστικά της τοιχοποιίας ενώ περιγράφεται και η διαδικασία της ομογενοποίησης των συστατικών της τοιχοποιίας προκειμένου να αντιμετωπίζεται ως ένα ισοδύναμο ομογενές υλικό. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο γίνεται σύντομη περιγραφή της θεωρίας βλάβης του συνεχούς μέσου και ο τρόπος που εισάγεται αυτή στο μαθηματικό προσομοίωμα που εφαρμόστηκε στο δεύτερο μέρος της διατριβής. Αρχικά, λοιπόν, γίνεται μια μηχανική αναπαράσταση της βλάβης και στη συνέχεια παρουσιάζεται το θεωρητικό υπόβαθρο της θεωρίας βλάβης στα ψαθυρά υλικά. Ακολουθεί μία σύντομη περιγραφή του δείκτη βλάβης και η διατύπωση των συναρτήσεών του, όπως αυτές διαμορφώθηκαν κατά την ανάπτυξη του μαθηματικού προσομοιώματος που εφαρμόστηκε στην εργασία, για μονοαξονική θλιπτική καταπόνηση, για μονοαξονική εφελκυστική καταπόνηση, για διατμητική καταπόνηση μετά ορθής τάσης, για επίπεδη εντατική κατάσταση και τέλος τη γενίκευση του για τριαξονική εντατική κατάσταση. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο περιγράφεται η επιφάνεια οριακής αντοχής. Αρχικά, δηλαδή, παρουσιάζονται συνοπτικά, και σύμφωνα με την βιβλιογραφία, οι μηχανισμοί αστοχίας της τοιχοποιίας καθώς και ο τρόπος υπολογισμού των τάσεων οριακής αντοχής. Στη συνέχεια διατυπώνονται οι μηχανισμοί αστοχίας της τοιχοποιίας υπό επίπεδη εντατική κατάσταση καθώς και ο γεωμετρικός προσδιορισμός της επιφάνειας οριακής αντοχής της τοιχοποιίας ενώ τέλος παρουσιάζονται οι σχέσεις που υπολογίζουν την οριακή αντοχή της τοιχοποιίας υπό συνθήκες τριαξονικής εντατικής κατάστασης. Στο πέμπτο κεφάλαιο, παρουσιάζονται συνοπτικά οι μέθοδοι αποκατάστασης και ενίσχυσης κατασκευών από τοιχοποιία. Μετά από μία σύντομη βιβλιογραφική αναφορά για την τρωτότητα των κατασκευών από φέρουσα τοιχοποιία, των βλαβών υπό τη δράση στατικών και σεισμικών φορτίσεων, των βλαβών υπό τη δράση περιβαλλοντικών παραγόντων, των κριτηρίων και των αρχών επεμβάσεων επισκευής και ενίσχυσης και των τεχνικών επεμβάσεων επισκευής και ενίσχυσης, γίνεται μια περιγραφική αναφορά των ενισχύσεων τοιχοποιίας με μανδύα οπλισμένου σκυροδέματος και με προεντεταμένους ελκυστήρες, καθώς αυτοί οι μέθοδοι ενίσχυσης χρησιμοποιήθηκαν και για τη γέφυρα της Κόνιτσας στον Αώο ποταμό. Στο έκτο κεφάλαιο, περιγράφεται συνοπτικά το λογισμικό που κάνει χρήση πεπερασμένων στοιχείων και επιλέχθηκε για την εφαρμογή του προσομοιώματος. Γίνεται αναφορά στις επιλογές ανάλυσης και τις δυνατότητες του προγράμματος αυτού καθώς και της δυνατότητας γραφικής απεικόνισης των αποτελεσμάτων που παράγει.. Στο έβδομο κεφάλαιο, παρουσιάζεται η κατασκευή που επιλέχθηκε προκειμένου να γίνει αριθμητική εφαρμογή του προσομοιώματος βλάβης. Αρχικά, περιγράφεται η γέφυρα της Κόνιτσας και γίνεται αναφορά των γεωμετρικών στοιχείων της. Έπειτα, παρουσιάζονται ορισμένα ιστορικά στοιχεία της γέφυρας. Στη συνέχεια, περιγράφεται ο τρόπος προσομοίωσης της γέφυρας με τη χρήση πεπερασμένων στοιχείων και αναφέρονται οι μηχανικές ιδιότητες των υλικών της. Επιπλέον, γίνεται αναφορά στις δυναμικές αναλύσεις χρονοϊστορίας που έγιναν τόσο για την αρχική κατάσταση της γέφυρας όσο και στις φάσεις ενίσχυσης με τη χρήση μανδύα οπλισμένου σκυροδέματος ή με τη χρήση προεντεταμένων ελκυστήρων. Τέλος, αναλύονται οι διαδικασίες ενίσχυσης της γέφυρας είτε με μανδύα οπλισμένου σκυροδέματος είτε με προεντεταμένους ελκυστήρες. Στο όγδοο κεφάλαιο, παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα των αναλύσεων της γέφυρας τόσο για την αρχική κατάστασή της, δηλαδή της μη ενισχυμένης περίπτωσης, όσο και για τις δύο περιπτώσεις στις οποίες η γέφυρα έχει ενισχυθεί με μανδύα σκυροδέματος ή με προεντεταμένους ελκυστήρες. Στο ένατο κεφάλαιο, παρουσιάζονται τα συμπεράσματα που προέκυψαν από τις αναλύσεις της γέφυρας τόσο για την αρχική της κατάσταση όσο και για τις ενισχυμένες περιπτώσεις. / The thesis can be divided into two parts. The first part deals with the presentation of the theoretical background of the mathematical model used to describe the damage that can occur in a construction upon a dynamic or static charge. The model was used in this thesis to analyze the bridge of Konitsa and for this reason the reference to the theoretical background was necessary, on which rests. The second part of the thesis concerns the seismic analysis of the bridge of Konitsa, evaluation of results and building processes and the subsequent comparison of results. Thus, the first chapter is initially a historical overview of the masonry and then refer to both categories and masonry as building material. Moreover, there is a brief description of the mechanical properties of masonry. Finally, presented briefly the fundamental assumptions and objectives of the model used and applied in the present work. The second chapter is the introductory part in which the masonry engineering data presented in more detail. Initially, reference is made to the classification of the masonry, for the construction of ways and then analyzed the mechanical properties. In sub-second chapter, that analyzes the strength of masonry in uniaxial compression, a multiaxial compressive, tensile bending strength, shear strength and durability under arbitrary stress levels. Finally presents the elastic characteristics of masonry and described the process of homogenization of the components of the masonry to be treated as an equivalent homogeneous material. The third chapter is a brief description of the error theory of continuous medium and the way it is introduced in the mathematical model applied in the second part of the thesis. Initially, then, is a mechanical representation of the lesion and then presents the theoretical background of damage theory in brittle materials. Following is a brief description of the index lesion and the expression of functions, like those formed during the development of the mathematical model applied to work, uniaxial compressive stress for uniaxial tensile stress for shear stress after proper voltage for plane stress conditions and end generalization for triaxial stress state. The fourth chapter describes the ultimate strength surface. Initially, ie, summarized, and according to the literature, the masonry failure mechanisms and the calculation of ultimate resistance trends. Then the masonry failure mechanisms are mentioned under plane stress conditions and the geometric definition of the ultimate strength of the masonry surface and finally presents the relations that calculate the ultimate strength of the masonry under conditions of triaxial stress condition. In the fifth chapter summarizes the methods of recovery and strengthening masonry structures. After a brief reference for the vulnerability of masonry structures, damage under the action of static and seismic loads, damage under the action of environmental factors, the criteria and repair operations authorities and aid and technical assistance and repair operations, is a descriptive report of wall reinforcement with concrete jacket and prestressing tractors, as these payment methods used and the bridge of Konitsa Aoos River. In the sixth chapter, summarized the software that makes use of finite element chosen for the implementation of the model. Refer to the analytical options and features of the program and the graphic display feature of the results produced .. In the seventh chapter, the structure was chosen in order to make numerical implementation of the model fault. Initially, described the bridge of Konitsa and reference geometric details. Then are some historical elements of the bridge. Then describe how simulation of the bridge using finite element and are the mechanical properties of the materials. Furthermore, reference is made to the dynamic history analyzes conducted for both the initial state of the bridge and in the amplification stages using concrete jacket or using prestressed tractors. Finally, we analyze the bridge-building processes or concrete jacket or prestressing tractors. In the eighth chapter presents the results of analyzes of the bridge both the initial condition, ie unamplified case, and for two cases in which the bridge has been reinforced with mantle concrete or prestressing tractors. In the ninth chapter presents the conclusions drawn from the analysis of both the bridge in its original condition and for reinforced cases.

A corrosão de armaduras é uma das causas mais comuns de degradação mecânica em estruturas em concreto armado. Esse processo leva à redução da vida útil e, consequentemente, a prejuízos econômicos. Desse modo, o presente trabalho visa contribuir com a análise dos fenômenos associados à degradação mecânica do concreto armado sujeito a processos corrosivos devido à carbonatação e à ação de cloretos. Para tal finalidade, modelos analíticos baseados na segunda lei de Fick são usados para quantificar a difusão de CO2 e de íons cloreto no concreto, os quais permitem determinar o tempo de início da corrosão. A degradação mecânica de estruturas em concreto armado é considerada por meio de um modelo em dano concentrado que contempla perda da rigidez, redução da área de aço e da tensão de escoamento de armaduras devido ao processo corrosivo. A formulação de dano concentrado foi modificada de forma a incluir uma variável de estado de corrosão e uma lei de evolução da corrosão, baseada em equações semi-empíricas disponíveis na literatura. Essas equações determinam a redução no diâmetro das armaduras e a perda da capacidade resistente do aço. O problema da corrosão é formulado como um processo estocástico sendo resolvido por meio do método de simulação de Monte Carlo para dois exemplos: uma viga isostática e um pórtico plano com grau de hiperestaticidade igual a três. A formulação da equação de estado limite é baseada em um valor de dano aceitável. Curvas de probabilidade de início da corrosão e de probabilidade de falha da estrutura são obtidas ao longo de 50 anos. No caso da estrutura hiperestática, o caminho mais provável de falha, também chamado de caminho crítico, é determinado. Observa-se que o processo corrosivo provoca mudanças no caminho crítico, e portanto, deve ser considerado nas análises de reparo estrutural. Mapas de dano e de probabilidade de falha foram desenvolvidos para mostrar as mudanças no comportamento estrutural devido à corrosão. / The reinforcement\'s corrosion is one of the most common causes of mechanical degradation in reinforced concrete structures. This process leads to the reduction of the service life and, consequently, economic loss. Thereby, this study aims to contribute with the analysis of the phenomena associated to the mechanical degradation of reinforced concrete, due to the carbonation and the chloride ions. For this purpose, analytical models based on second Fick\'s law are used to quantify CO2 and chloride ions diffusion, which enables to determine the corrosion time initiation. The mechanical degradation of reinforced concrete structures is modeles by the lumped damage model which accounts for stiffness loss, reinforcement mass loss and yield stress reduction due to the corrosive process. The lumped damage formulation was modified to include the state corrosion variable and the corrosion evolution law based on semi-empirical equations available in the literature. These equations determine the reinforcement\'s diameter reduction and the loss of resistant capacity of the reinforcement\'s bar. The corrosion problem is formulated as a stochastic process and solved by the Monte Carlo simulation for two examples: an isostatic beam and a hyperstatic frame. The limit state functions are based on the acceptable damage value. Curves of probability of corrosion initiation and probability of failure are obtained over a range of 50 years. In the hyperstatic case, the most probable failure path, also named the critical path, is determined. It is observed that the corrosive process causes changes on the critical path and, therefore, it must be accounted on structural repair analysis. Damage and probability of failure maps were developed to show the changes on the structural behavior due to the corrosion.

Föreliggande avhandling omfattar en fallstudie av utmattningsrisken för järnvägsbroarna mellan Stockholm Central och Söder Mälarstrand. Ett stort antal utmattningssprickor i broarna över Söderström och Söder Mälarstrand har sedan länge varit kända. I samband med en bärighetsutredning av sträckan har ett stort antal anslutningspunkter i samtliga broar identifierats som kritiska avseende utmattningsrisk. Sträckan är den mest trafikerade i Sverige och de förenklade beräkningsmetoder som anges i Banverkets föreskrift för bärighetsberäkningar är i vissa fall inte tillämpliga. De formella bärighetsberäkningarna har visat på flerfaldiga överskridanden i utnyttjandegrad gällande utmattning. I de punkter som beräkningarna visar störst risk för utmattning har inga sprickor påträffats, trots omfattande förbandsbesiktningar. Beräkningarna baseras på typiserade spänningskollektiv och givet antal spännings­växlingar, oberoende av den aktuella trafikmängden. Enligt bärighetsnormen ges möjlighet att beakta den verkliga trafikmängden baserat på historiskt bruttotonnage och typiserade trafiklaster. Dessa beräkningar har utförts och visar på ännu större risk för utmattning, jämfört med den förenklade metoden. I syfte att på ett ännu mer nyanserat sätt uppskatta utmattningsrisken har en metod använts, baserat på uppskattning av den faktiska trafikmängden och dess fördelningar. Beräkningarna baseras på trafikdata tillgänglig från Banverket. Metoden är tillämplig på andra järnvägsbroar på andra sträckor. Utöver teoretiska beräkningar har töjningsmätningar utförts. Under 2006 utförde dåvarande Carl Bro AB töjningsmätningar på bro över Söder Mälarstrand och viadukt söder om Söder Mälarstrand, avseende några enskilda tågöverfarter. Under 2008 utförde KTH Brobyggnad omfattande töjningsmätningar på bro över Söderström, avseende all trafik under en månads tid. / The present thesis comprises a case study of the risk of fatigue of the railway bridges chaining between Stockholm Central Station and the district Söder Mälarstrand. A large number of fatigue-related cracks in the bridges at Söderström and Söder Mälarstrand have been known for a long time. During a capacity assessment of the current bridges, a large number of connections have been identified as critical concerning fatigue resistance. The route is the most frequent in all of Sweden and the simplified methods of fatigue assessment defined by Banverket may not always be applicable. A conventional capacity assessment has shown numerous exceeds in fatigue resistance, using the stated safety margins. No fatigue cracks have been identified at the locations showing the largest theoretical risk of fatigue, in spite of extensive investigations. The conventional calculations are based on a uniform stress collective and a fixed number of stress cycles, independent of the actual traffic volume. According to the regulations stated by Banverket, the assessment may optionally be performed using historical data of the gross tonnage and standardised traffic loading. Such calculations have been undertaken and show even greater risk of fatigue, compared to the conventional assessment. To estimate the risk of fatigue in more detail, a method has been used, based on estimations of the real traffic volume and its distributions. The analysis is based on available data of the traffic volume and may be applied to other railway bridges on other locations. Besides theoretical analyses, field measurements have been performed. In 2006, former Carl Bro AB carried out strain gauge measurements on the bridge passing Söder Mälarstrand and the viaduct south of Söder Mälarstrand. The measurements comprised a small amount of individual train passages. During 2008, the division of Structural Design and Bridges at KTH performed an extensive field measurement programme on the bridge passing Söderström. Continuous measurements collecting data of all traffic during a period of one month was performed.

<p>Ageing is associated with a progressive decline in cognitive and physical function, as well as neurodegeneration. The DNA damage theory of ageing postulates that phenotypes associated with chronological ageing result from a time dependent accumulation of DNA damage caused by endogenously generated reactive oxygen species (ROS). In this work, we have used a host cell reactivation (HCR) technique to examine base excision repair (BER), the major pathway for removal of ROS generated damage, in fibroblasts from normal individuals and from patients with Cockayne syndrome (CS). The HCR assay utilizes an adenovirus encoded β-galactosidase (β-gal) reporter gene treated with methylene blue plus visible light (MB+VL) to measure BER of 7,8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG). The results presented here demonstrate that host cell repair mechanisms remove MB+VL generated 8-oxoG from viral DNA and that reactivation of gene expression correlates with cellular repair capacity and requires CSA and CSB. Using the HCR assay, we demonstrate that culturing of primary human fibroblasts in media containing low levels of MB increases BER, suggesting increased DNA repair capacity may play a role in the therapeutic application of MB in Alzheimer’s disease treatment. We also demonstrate that BER decreases <em>in vitro </em>with increasing number of cell divisions, and that HCR of the damaged reporter gene is lower in fibroblasts from older donors. Using a second β-gal reporter gene assay, the enhanced expression assay, we were unable to show a relationship between the degree of decreased BER in CS and severity of clinical phenotype. However, we identified an interaction between CSB and the telomere protein TRF2. Overexpression of TRF2 leads to decreased nucleotide excision repair of UVC induced damage in a CSB dependent manner. We also demonstrate defective telomeres in the absence of functional CSB. The data presented in this work provide additional support for the DNA damage theory of ageing.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Fatigue failure plays an important role in engineering applications, especially when structural components experience significant cyclic thermal loading and complex force loading simultaneously. During the last decades, several post-processing techniques have been developed based on empirical investigations of experimental evidence to predict the fatigue life of materials. The work at hand postulates a conventional continuum damage theory for thermomechanical fatigue failure modeling. In particular, an implicit gradient-enhanced approach is employed to address the ill-posedness of the partial differential equation system when the damage onsets. An internal fatigue variable is phenomenologically defined based on the accumulation of viscoplasticity. In the sequel, a regularized fatigue variable is obtained to further yield the damagesoftening function, which straightforwardly applies to the stress, material tangent, and viscoplastic dissipation. A multi-field problem, consisting of the strain field, the temperature, and the non-local variable, is taken into consideration, leading to a fully coupled system. This numerical methodology is consistently derived and implemented into the context of the finite element method. Several representative and demonstrative examples are performed, which yield good numerical stability and agreement with experimental data. Conclusive findings and further perspectives close this article.

The incorporation of recycled asphalt pavements (RAP) in the production of new asphalt mixtures is a useful alternative to the use of virgin materials, leading to economic and environmental savings. Pavement recycling created a sustainable cycle of reuse of nonrenewable natural resources, reducing the demand for new mineral aggregate and binder. However, the addition of RAP, especially at higher percentages, increases the stiffness of the asphalt mixture, because of the high stiffness of the aged binder. High stiffness makes the asphalt mixtures more prone to fatigue cracking. In order to overcome such limitation and allow the incorporation of higher percentages of RAP, soften binders or rejuvenating agents are added to the mixture. The former act to reduce the high stiffness of the aged binder and the latter act to restore the aged binder properties to those required by the binder specifications. The shale oil residue is one of the most used rejuvenating agents in Brazil, and, according to the literature, its performance is comparable to other commercial rejuvenating agents, with the advantage of presenting higher rejuvenating potential, what is due to its higher aromaticity. The fatigue cracking process starts as micro cracks in the fine aggregate matrix (FAM) of the full asphalt mixture. One approach to investigate the fatigue process of the asphalt mixtures is based on the viscoelastic continuum damage theory (VECD), in which the process of micro cracking of a material can be represented by internal state variables associated with the reduction of the material integrity. In this study, tests on FAM samples were performed in order to evaluate the fatigue performance, and the results were analyzed by means of the VECD theory. The objective of this research was to evaluate the fatigue performance of FAMs produced with three RAP contents (20, 40 and 100%), two binders of different performance grades (PG 64-22 and PG 58-16), and the combination of new binder (PG 64-22) and rejuvenating agent (shale oil residue) at different binder/agent rates (100/0, 50/50 and 0/100). Out of the FAMs prepared with RAP, two presented fatigue performance superior to the control mixture (compounded with only new materials): the FAM prepared with 40% of RAP and PG 64-22 and the FAM prepared with 20% of RAP and PG 58-16. The shale oil residue did not play its role of rejuvenating the aged binder for most cases, probably because of the low diffusion rate of the material into the aged binder. / A incorporação de misturas asfálticas fresadas na produção de misturas asfálticas novas é uma alternativa útil à utilização de materiais novos, gerando benefícios econômicos e ambientais. A reciclagem de pavimentos criou um ciclo sustentável de reuso de recursos naturais não-renováveis, reduzindo a demanda por agregado mineral e asfalto novos. No entanto, a adição do material fresado, especialmente em proporções altas, provoca aumento na rigidez da mistura asfáltica, causado pela alta rigidez do asfalto envelhecido. Uma elevada rigidez pode tornar a mistura asfáltica mais propensa ao trincamento por fadiga. Para contornar tal desvantagem e permitir a adição de maiores quantidades de material fresado, asfaltos de baixa consistência e agentes de rejuvenescimento podem ser adicionados à mistura. Os asfaltos de baixa consistência atuam para reduzir a rigidez do asfalto envelhecido e os agentes de rejuvenescimento atuam para restaurar as propriedades originais do asfalto envelhecido, aproximando-as das exigidas pelas especificações para asfaltos virgens. O resíduo de óleo de xisto é um dos agentes rejuvenescedores mais utilizados no Brasil e, segundo a literatura, resulta em desempenho comparável ao desempenho de outros agentes rejuvenescedores comerciais, com a vantagem de apresentar maior poder de rejuvenescimento devido à sua maior aromaticidade. O processo de trincamento por fadiga principia nas microtrincas presentes na matriz de agregado fino (MAF) da mistura asfáltica. Uma abordagem para avaliar o comportamento à fadiga das misturas asfálticas é baseada na teoria do dano contínuo em meio viscoelástico, pela qual o processo de trincamento do material é representado por variáveis de estado interno associadas à redução na integridade do material. Neste estudo, ensaios em amostras de MAF foram feitos para caracterizar o desempenho à fadiga, e os dados foram analisados utilizando a teoria do dano contínuo em meio viscoelástico. O objetivo da pesquisa foi avaliar o desempenho à fadiga de MAFs produzidas com três proporções de material fresado (20, 40 e 100%), dois asfaltos com diferentes graus de desempenho (PG 64-22 e PG 58-16), e três combinações (100/0, 50/50, 0/100) de asfalto PG 64-22 e agente de rejuvenescimento (resíduo de óleo de xisto). Dentre as MAFs preparadas com material fresado, duas apresentaram desempenho à fadiga superior à mistura de controle (composta apenas com materiais novos): a MAF composta com 40% de material fresado e PG 64-22 e a MAF composta com 20% de material fresado e PG 58-16. O resíduo de óleo de xisto não atuou como rejuvenescedor do asfalto envelhecido, para a maioria dos casos avaliados, provavelmente devido à baixa taxa de difusão do material no asfalto envelhecido.

The incorporation of recycled asphalt pavements (RAP) in the production of new asphalt mixtures is a useful alternative to the use of virgin materials, leading to economic and environmental savings. Pavement recycling created a sustainable cycle of reuse of nonrenewable natural resources, reducing the demand for new mineral aggregate and binder. However, the addition of RAP, especially at higher percentages, increases the stiffness of the asphalt mixture, because of the high stiffness of the aged binder. High stiffness makes the asphalt mixtures more prone to fatigue cracking. In order to overcome such limitation and allow the incorporation of higher percentages of RAP, soften binders or rejuvenating agents are added to the mixture. The former act to reduce the high stiffness of the aged binder and the latter act to restore the aged binder properties to those required by the binder specifications. The shale oil residue is one of the most used rejuvenating agents in Brazil, and, according to the literature, its performance is comparable to other commercial rejuvenating agents, with the advantage of presenting higher rejuvenating potential, what is due to its higher aromaticity. The fatigue cracking process starts as micro cracks in the fine aggregate matrix (FAM) of the full asphalt mixture. One approach to investigate the fatigue process of the asphalt mixtures is based on the viscoelastic continuum damage theory (VECD), in which the process of micro cracking of a material can be represented by internal state variables associated with the reduction of the material integrity. In this study, tests on FAM samples were performed in order to evaluate the fatigue performance, and the results were analyzed by means of the VECD theory. The objective of this research was to evaluate the fatigue performance of FAMs produced with three RAP contents (20, 40 and 100%), two binders of different performance grades (PG 64-22 and PG 58-16), and the combination of new binder (PG 64-22) and rejuvenating agent (shale oil residue) at different binder/agent rates (100/0, 50/50 and 0/100). Out of the FAMs prepared with RAP, two presented fatigue performance superior to the control mixture (compounded with only new materials): the FAM prepared with 40% of RAP and PG 64-22 and the FAM prepared with 20% of RAP and PG 58-16. The shale oil residue did not play its role of rejuvenating the aged binder for most cases, probably because of the low diffusion rate of the material into the aged binder. / A incorporação de misturas asfálticas fresadas na produção de misturas asfálticas novas é uma alternativa útil à utilização de materiais novos, gerando benefícios econômicos e ambientais. A reciclagem de pavimentos criou um ciclo sustentável de reuso de recursos naturais não-renováveis, reduzindo a demanda por agregado mineral e asfalto novos. No entanto, a adição do material fresado, especialmente em proporções altas, provoca aumento na rigidez da mistura asfáltica, causado pela alta rigidez do asfalto envelhecido. Uma elevada rigidez pode tornar a mistura asfáltica mais propensa ao trincamento por fadiga. Para contornar tal desvantagem e permitir a adição de maiores quantidades de material fresado, asfaltos de baixa consistência e agentes de rejuvenescimento podem ser adicionados à mistura. Os asfaltos de baixa consistência atuam para reduzir a rigidez do asfalto envelhecido e os agentes de rejuvenescimento atuam para restaurar as propriedades originais do asfalto envelhecido, aproximando-as das exigidas pelas especificações para asfaltos virgens. O resíduo de óleo de xisto é um dos agentes rejuvenescedores mais utilizados no Brasil e, segundo a literatura, resulta em desempenho comparável ao desempenho de outros agentes rejuvenescedores comerciais, com a vantagem de apresentar maior poder de rejuvenescimento devido à sua maior aromaticidade. O processo de trincamento por fadiga principia nas microtrincas presentes na matriz de agregado fino (MAF) da mistura asfáltica. Uma abordagem para avaliar o comportamento à fadiga das misturas asfálticas é baseada na teoria do dano contínuo em meio viscoelástico, pela qual o processo de trincamento do material é representado por variáveis de estado interno associadas à redução na integridade do material. Neste estudo, ensaios em amostras de MAF foram feitos para caracterizar o desempenho à fadiga, e os dados foram analisados utilizando a teoria do dano contínuo em meio viscoelástico. O objetivo da pesquisa foi avaliar o desempenho à fadiga de MAFs produzidas com três proporções de material fresado (20, 40 e 100%), dois asfaltos com diferentes graus de desempenho (PG 64-22 e PG 58-16), e três combinações (100/0, 50/50, 0/100) de asfalto PG 64-22 e agente de rejuvenescimento (resíduo de óleo de xisto). Dentre as MAFs preparadas com material fresado, duas apresentaram desempenho à fadiga superior à mistura de controle (composta apenas com materiais novos): a MAF composta com 40% de material fresado e PG 64-22 e a MAF composta com 20% de material fresado e PG 58-16. O resíduo de óleo de xisto não atuou como rejuvenescedor do asfalto envelhecido, para a maioria dos casos avaliados, provavelmente devido à baixa taxa de difusão do material no asfalto envelhecido.