One common software program developed for analyzing single laterally loaded piles is called LPILE. Soil properties are required as input into LPILE. For sands, the soil properties required are effective soil unit weight, γ’; subgrade modulus, k; and the internal friction angle, ϕ’. There are two commonly used methods to obtain ϕ’ and subsequently k: the API method and Bolton method. Fourteen different pile test sites were used in the analysis of the API and Bolton methods to obtain soil strength properties in sands for laterally loaded single pile tests. Between the fourteen pile test sites, a total of 26 piles were tested in the field and analyzed in LPILE using the API method and Bolton method to calculate the soil strength properties of the sands. After each pile test was analyzed in LPILE and compared to the field measured results, the two methods were compared graphically and percent errors were calculated between each method and the measured results to determine the optimal method in single laterally loaded pile design. Using the Bolton method to determine the soil strength properties gives more accurate load-deflection values with respect to measured values from field tests. The Bolton method accounts for dilation and the type of sand as well as the relative density and the mean effective stress of the soil. This leads to soil strength properties more characteristic of the soil at the site.

Typically, foundation piles are made of materials such as steel, concrete, and timber. Problems associated with use of these traditional pile materials in harsh marine environments include steel corrosion, concrete deterioration, and marine borer attack on timber piles. It has been estimated that the U.S. spends over $1 billion annually in repair and replacement of waterfront piling systems. Such high repair and replacement costs have led several North American highway agencies and researchers to investigate the feasibility of using composite piles for load bearing applications, such as bridge substructures. As used here, the term "composite piles" refers to alternative pile types composed of fiber reinforced polymers (FRPs), recycled plastics, or hybrid materials. Composite piles may exhibit longer service lives and improved durability in harsh marine environments, thereby presenting the potential for substantially reduced total costs. Composite piles have been available in the North American market since the late 1980's, but have not yet gained wide acceptance in civil engineering practice. Potential disadvantages of composite piles are high initial cost and questions about engineering performance. At present, the initial cost of composite piles is generally greater than the initial cost of traditional piles. Performance questions relate to driving efficiency, axial stiffness, bending stiffness, durability, and surface friction. These questions exist because there is not a long-term track record of composite pile use and there is a scarcity of well-documented field tests on composite piles. This research project was undertaken to investigate the engineering performance of composite piles as load-bearing foundation elements, specifically in bridge support applications. The objectives of this research are to: (1) evaluate the soil-pile interface behavior of five composite piles and two conventional piles, (2) evaluate the long-term durability of concrete-filled FRP composite piles, (3) evaluate the driveability and the axial and lateral load behavior of concrete-filled FRP composite piles, steel-reinforced recycled plastic composite piles, and prestressed concrete piles through field tests and analyses, and (4) design and implement a long-term monitoring program for composite and conventional prestressed concrete piles supporting a bridge at the Route 351 crossing of the Hampton River in Virginia. A summary of the main findings corresponding to each of these objectives is provided below. A laboratory program of interface testing was performed using two types of sands and seven pile surfaces (five composite piles and two conventional piles). The interface behavior of the different pile surfaces was studied within a geotribology framework that investigated the influence of surface topography, interface hardness, and particle size and shape. In general, the interface friction angles, both peak and residual, were found to increase with increasing relative asperity height and decreasing relative asperity spacing. The interface shear tests for the three pile types tested at the Route 351 bridge showed that, for medium dense, subrounded to rounded sand, with a mean particle size of 0.5 mm, the residual interface friction angles are 27.3, 24.9, and 27.7 degrees for the FRP composite pile, the recycled plastic pile, and the prestressed concrete pile, respectively. Interface shear tests on these same piles using a medium dense, subangular to angular sand, with a mean particle size of 0.18 mm, resulted in residual interface friction angles of 29.3, 28.8, and 28.0 degrees for the FRP composite pile, the recycled plastic pile, and the prestressed concrete pile, respectively. A laboratory durability study was completed for the FRP shells of concrete-filled FRP composite piles. Moisture absorption at room temperature caused strength and stiffness degradations of up to 25% in the FRP tubes. Exposure to freeze-thaw cycles was found to have little effect on the longitudinal tensile properties of saturated FRP tubes. Analyses were performed to investigate the impact of degradation of the FRP mechanical properties on the long-term structural capacity of concrete-filled FRP composite piles in compression and bending. The impact was found to be small for the axial pile capacity due to the fact that the majority of the capacity contribution is from the concrete infill. The impact of FRP degradation was found to be more significant for the flexural capacity because the FRP shell provides most of the capacity contribution on the tension side of the pile. Full-scale field performance data was obtained for two composite pile types (concretefilled FRP composite piling and steel-reinforced recycled plastic piling), as well as for conventional prestressed concrete piles, by means of load test programs performed at two bridge construction sites: the Route 351 bridge and the Route 40 bridge crossing the Nottoway River in Virginia. The field testing at the two bridges showed no major differences in driving behavior between the composite piles and conventional prestressed concrete piles. Pile axial capacities of the composite piles tested at the Route 351 bridge were between 70 to 75% of the axial capacity of the prestressed concrete test pile. The FRP and prestressed concrete piles exhibited similar axial and lateral stiffness, while the steel-reinforced plastic pile was not as stiff. Conventional geotechnical analysis procedures were used to predict axial pile capacity, axial load-settlement behavior, and lateral load behavior of the piles tested at the Route 351 bridge. The conventional analysis procedures were found to provide reasonable predictions for the composite piles, or at least to levels of accuracy similar to analyses for the prestressed concrete pile. However, additional case histories are recommended to corroborate and extend this conclusion to other composite pile types and to different soil conditions. A long-term monitoring program for composite and conventional prestressed concrete piles supporting the Route 351 bridge was designed and implemented. The bridge is still under construction at the time of this report, therefore no conclusions have been drawn regarding the long-term performance of concrete-filled FRP composite piles. The longterm monitoring will be done by the Virginia Department of Transportation. In addition to the above findings, initial cost data for the composite piles and prestressed concrete piles used in this research were compiled. This data may be useful to assess the economic competitiveness of composite piles. The initial unit cost of the installed composite piles at the Route 40 bridge were about 77 % higher than the initial unit cost for the prestressed concrete piles. The initial unit costs for the composite piles installed at the Route 351 bridge were higher than the initial unit cost of the prestressed concrete piles by about 289% and 337% for the plastic and FRP piles, respectively. The cost effectiveness of composite piles is expected to improve with economies of scale as production volumes increase, and by considering the life-cycle costs of low-maintenance composite piles. / Ph. D.

Titre de l'écran-titre (visionné le 8 mai 2023) / Ce mémoire présente une analyse technico-économique des convertisseurs de puissance associés aux systèmes de stockage d'énergie par batterie. Trois convertisseurs de puissance ont été modélisés en prenant en compte notamment la résistance interne de la batterie et les fluctuations de la tension aux bornes du système de stockage. Il s'agit plus précisément d'un convertisseur DC/DC, d'un convertisseur DC/AC triphasé à deux niveaux, et d'un convertisseur triphasé DC/AC multi niveau de la structure NPC. La sélection de ces trois topologies de convertisseurs d'électronique de puissance n'est pas aléatoire et est soumise à certains critères de sélection. Ce choix est justifié tout au long du manuscrit. Les équations de dimensionnement, de calcul des pertes par conduction et par commutation, du rendement ainsi que du taux de distorsion harmonique de ces convertisseurs sont fournies. Les performances en termes de rendement, de pertes et de taux de distorsion harmonique de ces convertisseurs ont été déterminées en prenant en compte le rapport cyclique, la résistance interne du système de stockage, les fluctuations de la tension aux bornes du système de stockage et le type de charge alimentée par le système de stockage. Les résultats de la simulation de ces convertisseurs sur le logiciel Matlab/Simulink sont présentés pour valider la partie théorique. Au-delà des convertisseurs de puissance, ce travail présente également une approche holistique des systèmes de stockage d'énergie par batterie ainsi que de leurs composants. Par ailleurs, deux modèles d'équilibrage de cellules ont été développés sur la base de modèles disponibles dans la littérature. / This work presents a techno-economic analysis of power converters associated with battery energy storage systems. Three power converters are modeled, taking into account factors such as the internal resistance of the battery and voltage fluctuations at the storage system terminals. Specifically, these converters include a DC-DC converter, a two-level three-phase DC/AC converter, and a three-level three-phase NPC DC/AC converter. The selection of these three power electronic converter topologies for modelization is not random but is subject to certain selection criteria, which are justified throughout the manuscript. Equations for sizing, calculating conduction and switching losses, efficiency, and total harmonic distortion for these converters are provided. The performance of these converters in terms of efficiency, losses, and total harmonic distortion is determined taking into account duty cycle, internal resistance of the storage system, voltage fluctuations at the storage system terminals, and the type of load supplied by the storage system. Simulation results for these converters using Matlab/Simulink software are presented to validate the theoretical part. Beyond power converters, this work also presents a holistic approach to battery energy storage systems and their components. Additionally, two cell balancing models are developed based on models available in the literature.

Dans un contexte de croissance de la productivité agricole, de réduction du coût des intrants, de valorisation des ressources et de cohabitation harmonieuse en milieu agri-urbain par une réduction des odeurs et des sources de pollution agroenvironnementales, il est primordial de développer des technologies agroenvironnementales de valorisation énergétique et de réduction de l'impact environnemental de l'industrie agricole. Les recherches sur les piles bio-électrochimiques connaissent un développement important ces dernières années. Les piles bio-électrochimiques produisent directement de l'électricité tout en traitant un effluent pour en réduire les nuisances environnementales contribuant ainsi à amener des solutions intéressantes à ces enjeux. Il reste cependant à accroître leurs performances afin de rendre cette technologie utilisable à grande échelle. Dans cette étude, nous avons pu identifier les populations microbiennes intervenant dans le processus électrique et ainsi pu définir des paramètres de fonctionnement permettant d'accroître notablement les performances électriques lorsque le lisier de porc est le substrat utilisé dans la pile. Ce succès, rencontré dans l'application du traitement et de la valorisation énergétique du lisier de porc, permet d'être grandement optimiste en vue d'une mise à l'échelle industrielle non seulement pour cette application, mais également pour d'autres effluents organiques.

Avec la croissance des nouvelles technologies émergentes dans les réseaux de distribution, tels que les éoliennes, les panneaux solaires, les véhicules électriques et les sources de génération distribuées, la nécessité d'étudier simultanément les réseaux de transmission et de distribution (T&D) et leurs interactions bilatérales ne peut plus être négligée. Une forte pénétration des sources d'énergie renouvelable, naturellement stochastiques, peut inverser le flux d'énergie, ce qui ne rentre pas dans le paradigme d’un écoulement de puissance à flux descendant qui caractérise les systèmes d'alimentation conventionnels. Par conséquent, les méthodes d'étude de réseaux telles que le fux de puissance optimal (Optimal Power Flow), l'engagement des groupes de production (unit commitment) et l'analyse de la stabilité doivent être revisitées. Cette thèse propose l'application de systèmes de stockage d'énergie sur batterie (BESS) dans un cadre intégré de T&D minimisant les impacts négatifs des énergies renouvelables insérées dans le réseau de distribution ou chez le client. Les BESS peuvent être interprétés comme des équipements flexibles supplémentaires, contrôlés à distance et/ou localement, qui absorbent ou libèrent des puissances actives et réactives et améliorent l'efficacité globale du système T&D au complet du point de vue de la stabilité et de la performance dynamique. Selon la pratique courante, les études des systèmes T&D intégrés peuvent être classées en sous-groupes d’études dynamiques vs stationnaires ou en sous-groupes d’études de cooptimisation vs co-simulation. Suivant la même approche, l’analyse à l’état d’équilibre est d’abord lancée par un nouvel outil d’allocation optimisée stochastique de BESS (VSCSOBA) à contrainte de stabilité de tension. L'outil d'optimisation développé basé sur GAMS à deux niveaux prend en compte les BESS et des modèles détaillés de ressources énergétiques distribuées stochastiques tout en minimisant principalement les pertes de puissance active, mais les écarts de tension, les coûts de délestage, l'augmentation de la capacité de charge (chargeabilité ou « loadbility ») ainsi que la réduction de la vulnérabilité sont aussi des fonctions objectives qui ont été considérées. L’applicabilité de l’outil proposé a été confirmée sur des cas d’utilisation basés sur des réseaux T&D benchmark de l’IEEE comportant des centaines de variables et contraintes. Dans la partie suivante, l'architecture du framework de co-simulation, ainsi que les différents acteurs clés qui y participent seront examinés. Les objectifs de cette partie sont les suivants : développer, simuler et résoudre des équations algébriques de chaque niveau indépendamment, à l'aide de simulateurs bien connus, spécifiques à un domaine (c’est-à-dire, transport vs distribution), tout en assurant une interface externe pour l'échange de données. L'outil d'interface devrait établir une connexion de partage de données robuste, fiable et bilatérale entre deux niveaux de système. Les idées et les méthodologies proposées seront discutées. Pour completer cette étude, La commutation optimale de réseaux de transport (Optimal Transmission Switching) en tant que nouvelle méthode de réduction des coûts d'exploitation est considérée d'un point de vue de la sécurité, en assument ou non la présence des BESS. De toute évidence, l'OTS est un moyen efficace (tout comme la référence de tension ou le contrôle des références de puissances P-Q) qui s’avère nécessaire dans le cadre T&D intégré, tel que nous le démontrons à travers divers cas d'utilisation. Pour ce faire, afin de préserver la sécurité des systèmes de transport d'électricité contre les attaques ou les catastrophes naturelles telles que les ouragans et les pannes, un problème OTS stochastique orienté vulnérabilité (VO-SOTS) est également introduit dans cette thèse tout en considérant l'incertitude des charges via une approche par échantillonage de scénarios respectant la distribution statistique des incertitudes. / With the growing trend of emerging new technologies in distribution networks, such as wind turbines, solar panels, electric vehicles, and distributed generations, the need for simultaneously studying Transmission & Distribution (T&D) networks and their bilateral interactions cannot be overlooked anymore. High penetration of naturally stochastic renewable energy sources may reverse the energy flow which does not fit in the top-down energy transfer paradigm of conventional power systems. Consequently, network study methods such as optimal power flow, unit commitment, and static stability analysis need to be revised. This thesis proposes application of battery energy storage systems (BESS) within integrated T&D framework minimizing the adverse impacts of renewable energy resources. The BESSs can be interpreted as additional flexible equipment, remotely and/or locally controlled, which absorb or release both active and reactive powers and improve the overall efficiency of the complete T&D system from both steady-state and dynamic viewpoints. As a common practice, the integrated T&D framework studies are categorized into either dynamic and steady-state subcases or co-optimization framework and co-simulation framework. Following the same approach, the steady-state analysis is first initiated by a novel voltage stability constrained stochastic optimal BESS allocation (VSC-SOBA) tool. The developed bi-level GAMS-based optimization tool takes into account BESSs and detailed models of stochastic distributed energy resources while minimizing active power losses, voltage deviation, load shedding costs, increasing loadability, and vulnerability mitigation are objective functions. The applicability of proposed tool has been confirmed over large IEEE recognized T&D benchmarks with hundreds of variables and constraints. In the next part, the architecture of co-simulation framework and different key players will be investigated. The objectives of this part are set as: developing, simulating, and solving differential and algebraic equations of each level independently, using existing well-known domain-specific simulators, while externally-interfaced for exchanging data. The interface tool should stablish a robust, reliable, and bilateral data sharing connection between two levels of system. The ideas and proposed methodologies will be discussed. To complete this study, optimal transmission switching (OTS) as a new method for reduction of operation costs is next considered from a security point of view. It is shown clearly that OTS is an effective mean (just like voltage reference or P-Q reference control), which is necessary in the integrated T&D framework to make it useful in dealing with various emerging use cases. To do so without impeding the security of power transmission systems against attacks or natural disasters such as hurricane and outages, a vulnerability oriented stochastic OTS (VO-SOTS) problem is also introduced in this thesis, while considering the loads uncertainty via a scenario-based approach.

Les piles à combustible ont un grand potentiel pour une utilisation en tant que dispositifs alternatifs de conversion d'énergie pour de nombreuses applications. Les piles à combustible PEM sont considérées comme des remplaçants potentiels du moteur à combustion interne des véhicules automobiles, en raison de leurs émissions réduites et d'une meilleure efficacité. Un catalyseur à base de Pt est nécessaire pour faciliter à la fois la réaction d'oxydation de l'hydrogène (HOR) et la réaction de réduction de l'oxygène (ORR) qui se produisent à l'anode et à la cathode d'une PEMFC, respectivement. La vitesse d'ORR est intrinsèquement très lente et est considérée comme le facteur limitant de la performance des PEMFCs. Afin de produire de l'énergie à un rythme acceptable pour les applications du monde réel, une quantité importante de catalyseur au Pt est nécessaire. Celui-ci est habituellement sous la forme de nanoparticules de platine uniformément réparties sur un matériau de support en carbone poreux (Pt/C). Le Pt est un métal noble extrêmement coûteux avec une abondance naturelle très limitée. Ainsi, la commercialisation à grande échelle de PEMFC nécessite des progrès importants dans le développement de catalyseurs à la fois pour réduire la quantité de platine et renforcer la durabilité du catalyseur. Dans ce travail de recherche, nous avons utilisé des réseaux de coordination hybrides métal composé organique (MOF) comme seul précurseur pour préparer des électrocatalyseurs pour PEMFC. En raison de leur cristallinité, de leur porosité et de leur structure hybride, ces matériaux ont un potentiel pour être appliqués comme précurseur d'électrocatalyseurs de PEMFC. La structure tridimensionnelle bien définie de ces matériaux peut produire une forte densité de sites métalliques actifs distribués uniformément à travers leur structure et disposés régulièrement. Ainsi, ils peuvent améliorer l'utilisation du catalyseur. Les groupes de liaison organiques du précurseur à base de MOF sont convertis en carbone lors de l'activation thermique, tout en maintenant le réseau poreux, ce qui conduit à des catalyseurs ayant une grande surface spécifique et des sites actifs uniformément distribués sans la nécessité d'un autre support de carbone. Des précurseurs MOF contenant du Pt et du Fe ont été synthétisés et utilisés comme le précurseur exclusif pour développer à la fois des électrocatalyseurs à base de Pt et de métaux non précieux (Fe) pour PEMFC. L'expérience construite avec des électrocatalyseurs à base de Pt a été le premier essai de mise en œuvre de métaux précieux à base de MOFs pour développer des électrocatalyseurs PEMFC. L'électrocatalyseur à base de Pt dérivé de ce précurseur contenant du Pt MOF a démontré une performance catalytique comparable à celle disponible dans le commerce Pt/C en particulier pour les HOR du côté de l'anode. Pour préparer un électrocatalyseur non-précieux, un MOF contenant du Fe appartenant à une nouvelle classe de matériaux MOF, autre que les ZIFs, a été synthétisé et utilisé comme le précurseur unique d'électrocatalyseurs. Ce fut le premier rapport sur l'utilisation d'un précurseur MOF non-ZIF pour le développement d'électrocatalyseurs ORR. Cet électrocatalyseur à base de Fe a révélé une activité prometteuse en ORR et les performances de pile à combustible PEM lorsqu'il est appliqué à la couche de catalyseur cathodique de la MEA correspondante. En outre, l'effet de la composition de l'encre de catalyseur préparée à partir du dérivé MOF électrocatalyseur à base de Pt, en termes de teneur en ionomère Nafion, a été étudiée sur la performance globale du PEMFC via un modèle CFD macroscopique. La tendance prédite à partir des calculs de modélisation a ensuite été examinée expérimentalement à la recherche de la teneur optimale en ionomère Nafion. De plus, les électrocatalyseurs produits par la transformation thermique des MOFs à base de Pt sur noir de carbone, ont été étudiés par spectroscopie d'impédance. Les précurseurs (MOF-253) et leurs produits de thermolyse ont été pris en compte dans cette étude. Il a été observé que les matériaux soumis à la thermolyse à différentes températures passaient par différents états de conductibilité, depuis des isolants jusqu'à des matériaux de conductance voisine de celle des métaux. Ces données présentaient une augmentation de conductance avec la température et des valeurs élevées à température ambiante. / Fuel cells have great potential for use as alternative energy conversion devices for a wide variety of applications. Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are considered to be potential replacements for internal combustion engines in automobiles, owing to their reduced emissions and better efficiency. A platinum (Pt)-based catalyst is required to facilitate both hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) and oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) which occur at the anode and cathode of PEMFCs, respectively. The ORR kinetic is inherently very sluggish and is considered the limiting factor facing the performance of PEMFCs. In order to generate power at an acceptable rate for real world applications, a significant amount of Pt catalyst is required. This is traditionally in the form of Pt nanoparticles evenly distributed on a porous carbon support material (Pt/C). Pt is an extremely expensive noble metal with very limited natural abundance. Thus, large-scale commercialization of PEMFCs requires significant advances in catalyst development in order both to reduce the amount of Pt metal and to enhance catalyst durability. In this research work, we employed Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) as a sole precursor for preparing PEMFC electrocatalysts. Owing to their crystalline, porous, hybrid structure, these materials have potential to be applied as PEMFCs electrocatalyst precursor. The clearly-defined three-dimensional structure of these materials can produce a high density of metal active sites evenly distributed through their regularly arranged structure. They can therefore enhance catalyst utilization. The organic linkers of the MOF-based precursor would be converted to carbon during thermal activation while maintaining the porous framework, leading to catalysts with high surface area and uniformly distributed active sites without the need for a carbon support. Pt and Fe containing MOF precursors were synthesized and used as the sole precursor to develop both Pt and non-precious (Fe)-based electrocatalysts for PEMFCs. A Pt-based electrocatalyst was the first reported on implementation of precious metal containing MOFs for developing PEMFC electrocatalyst. The Pt-based electrocatalyst derived from this Pt-containing MOF precursor demonstrated catalytic performance comparable to the commercially available Pt/C especially for HOR at the anode side. To prepare a non-precious electrocatalyst, Fe containing MOF belonging to a different class of MOF materials other than ZIFs was synthesized and used as the sole electrocatalyst precursor. This was the first report on using non-ZIF MOF precursor for ORR electrocatalyst development. This Fe-based electrocatalyst revealed promising ORR activity and PEM fuel cell performance when applied at the cathodic catalytic layer of the corresponding membrane electrode assembly (MEA). In addition, the effect of catalyst ink composition prepared from the MOF derived Pt-based electrocatalyst, in terms of Nafion ionomer content, on the overall performance of PEMFC was investigated via a macroscopic CFD model. The trend predicted from the model calculations was then surveyed experimentally in search for the optimum Nafion ionomer content. Furthermore, the products of thermal transformation of Pt-based MOF into carbon-black based electrocatalyst were studied using a.c. impedance spectroscopy. Along with the electrocatalyst precursor, thermolysis products of parent MOF-253 (Al-containing) were considered in these studies. The materials subjected to thermolysis at increasing temperatures were found to pass through different conduction states starting from insulator and ending up with a particular metal-like conductance with positive temperature dependence and high ambient conductivity.

Le travail présenté dans ce mémoire concerne le développement et l'optimisation de structures poreuses, flexibles et électriquement conductrices afin de remplacer les couches actuelles de diffusion des gaz (GDL) des piles à combustible à membrane échangeuse de protons (PEMFC), qui sont rigides et fragiles. Pour cela, un système binaire de polymères immiscibles composé de polyfluorure de vinylidène (PVDF) et de polyéthylène téréphtalate (PET) a été utilisé, présentant une structure co-continue. De faibles quantités de graphène (Gr) et/ou d'oxyde de graphène réduit (rGO) ont été ajoutées au système PVDF/PET pour générer une conductivité électrique au sein des structures GDL développées. Des nanocomposites PVDF/PET-Gr ont été élaborés en utilisant un mélangeur interne et les paramètres du procédé ont été optimisés pour assurer un malaxage adéquat et une structure co-continue. Pour générer des mats fibreux non tissés sans défauts et présentant à la fois une bonne conductivité électrique et une porosité adéquate pour la GDL, nous avons combiné le procédé d'électrofilage de polymères à l'état fondu et celui d'électropulvérisation. Tout d'abord, l'électrofilage à l'état fondu a été utilisé et les paramètres du procédé ont été optimisés pour produire des structures fibreuses à partir du composite PVDF/PET-Gr. Les systèmes contenant 3.0 % en poids de Gr ont permis de générer des mats fibreux sans défauts ayant une porosité variant entre 74% et 86 %, conforme à la plage ciblée par le DOE (Département de l'Énergie des États-Unis). Ensuite, l'électropulvérisation a été employée pour améliorer davantage la conductivité électrique des mats développés en projetant du Gr ou du rGO à la surface des fibres. L'optimisation des paramètres d'électropulvérisation a permis de diminuer la résistivité volumique des mats jusqu'à environ 4.4 Ω.cm. / The work presented in this thesis concerns the development and optimization of porous, flexible, and electrically conductive structures to replace the current gas diffusion layers (GDL) of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), which are rigid and fragile. For this purpose, a binary system of immiscible polymers composed of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) was used, presenting a co-continuous structure. Small quantities of graphene (Gr) and/or reduced graphene oxide (rGO) were added to the PVDF/PET system to generate electrical conductivity within the developed GDL structures. First, PVDF/PET-Gr nanocomposites were prepared using an internal mixer, and process parameters were optimized to ensure proper mixing and a co-continuous structure. To generate defect-free non-woven fibrous mats with both good electrical conductivity and adequate porosity for the GDL, we combined the processes of melt electrospinning and electrospraying. Firstly, melt electrospinning was employed, and process parameters were optimized to produce fibrous structures from the PVDF/PET-Gr composite. Systems containing 3.0% by weight of Gr allowed for the production of defect-free fibrous mats with a porosity ranging between 74% and 86%, aligning with the range targeted by the US Department of Energy (DOE). Subsequently, electrospraying was utilized to further enhance the electrical conductivity of the developed mats by projecting Gr or rGO onto the fiber surfaces. Optimization of the electrospraying parameters resulted in a reduction of the volumetric resistivity of the mats to approximately 4.4 Ω.cm.

Tem sido observado, de longa data, que ensaios de carregamento dinâmico e provas de carga estática realizados em estacas cravadas após diferentes intervalos de tempo da cravação mostram que podem ocorrer variações nas suas capacidades de carga ao longo do tempo, que em certos casos levam ao aumento da resistência do solo e em outros casos resultam na diminuição da resistência do solo. O trabalho apresenta uma revisão bibliográfica do fenômeno de ganho, com o tempo, de resistência de estacas cravadas em solos argilosos conhecido por efeito \"set-up\", cujos principais mecanismos são explicados por teorias relacionadas à variação das pressões neutras, geradas ao redor das estacas durante a cravação. O método adotado nas análises envolve conceitos da teoria da expansão da cavidade cilíndrica, onde o objetivo principal é entender o comportamento de estacas cravadas em solos argilosos, nos quais o efeito \"set-up\" é normalmente mais acentuado. Os fenômenos pertinentes são avaliados através de análises teóricas, usando o método de Randolph, e numéricas, recorrendo ao método dos elementos finitos. Estas análises foram validadas através de modelagens numéricas comparadas a dados de campo apresentados por ETC (Earth Technology Corporation), sendo observada boa aderência entre os dados de campos e os resultados das estimativas teóricas. A aplicação desta metodologia permite estimar variações tanto das tensões radiais efetivas quanto dos atritos laterais unitários em função do tempo, levando em conta dois parâmetros mais relevantes, a saber, resistência não-drenada e coeficiente de adensamento primário horizontal. Comparações são feitas a ensaios de carregamento dinâmico realizados em estacas cravadas em uma obra da Baixada Santista (SP). Os resultados obtidos mostram uma dispersão no ganho das resistências das estacas analisadas, mas com variações dentro de uma faixa de valores relativamente estreita. Além disso, revelam valores teóricos de \"set-up\", relativo a parcela de atrito lateral, em um intervalo entre 2,0 e 2,5 aproximadamente, 20 dias após a cravação. Apesar das dispersões encontradas, inerentes a este tipo de estudo, considera-se que os resultados obtidos significam um importante passo para melhor entendimento do efeito \"set-up\". / For a long time, it has been observed that load tests performed on driven piles show that there may be variations in load capacity over time, which in some cases lead to an increase in soil resistance and in other cases result in decrease of soil resistance. In this study, a review is presented about the mechanisms that lead to the gains in pile load capacity with time, known as \"set-up\", whose main mechanisms are explained by theories related to the excess porepressures generated around the piles during installation. The presented method involves the theory of cylindrical cavity expansion, where the main objective is to understand the behavior of driven piles in clayey soils, in which \"Set-up\" is usually more pronounced. The relevant phenomena are evaluated by theoretical analysis, based in Randolph\'s method, and numerical analysis, using the finite element method. These analyzes were validated through numerical analysis compared to field data presented by ETC (Earth Technology Corporation). Good agreement has been observed between field data and the theoretical results. The methodology allows to estimate variations in both the effective radial stress and the unit friction resistance over time, considering two main parameters, undrained shear strength and horizontal coefficient of consolidation. Comparisons are made to dynamic load tests conducted on driven piles located in Santos Coastal Plane (\"Baixada Santista\"), in São Paulo - Brazil. A dispersion in the results of the load capacities has been observed, but within a relatively narrow range of values. In adittion, the theoretical values of lateral \"set-up\" were obtained in a range between 2,0 and 2,5 approximately 20 days after installation. Knowing that dispersions are inherent to this type of study, it is considered that the results imply an important step to a better understanding of the \"set-up\".

O trabalho apresenta o histórico e o desenvolvimento dos equipamentos de estacas hélice segmentada, que surgiram no ano de 2002. Atualmente já existe um número representativo de equipamentos em operação no mercado, confirmando a boa aceitação do processo pelo meio técnico. São detalhados os aspectos executivos deste tipo de fundação e investiga-se o risco de sua execução no aspecto operacional, no que se refere à integridade da estaca, caso não sejam observados padrões ou regras adequadas pelas empresas executoras. Foram executados ensaios de integridade (PIT) em 10 estacas hélice segmentadas, instaladas em São Bernardo do Campo SP, com particularidades executivas diversificadas e em terreno com características distintas, que permitiram verificar a confiabilidade dos gráficos de monitoração da perfuratriz. Ainda neste trabalho, apresenta-se resultado de prova de carga instrumentada, feita numa estaca hélice segmentada de 30 cm de diâmetro e 12 m de comprimento, instalada no Campo Experimental de Fundações e Mecânica dos Solos da UNICAMP. A estaca foi submetida a carregamentos lento e rápido, estáticos e à compressão, e seus resultados são comparados com os de provas de carga em estacas tipo hélice contínua, de mesmo comprimento, feitas anteriormente no local. Ao término, apresentam-se algumas recomendações baseadas na pesquisa e no acompanhamento de obras, podendo-se assim, avaliar padrões de boa e má execução. / This work presents the history and development of segmented flight auger equipment, which appeared in 2002 in Brasil. Nowadays there is already a considerable number of equipments being operated in the market, confirming the well acceptance of the process in the technical field. The executive aspects on this type of foundation are detailed and it is investigated the risk of its execution in the operational aspect regarding the pile integrity, in case patterns or adequate rules are not observed by the pile companies. Pile integrity tests have been carried out in 10 segmented flight augers installed in São Bernardo do Campo SP, with executive particularities in diversified fields with distinguished characteristics, which allowed to check the reliability of monitoring graphs from the drilling machine. In addition, it is shown the result of an instrumented loading test, carried out on a segmented flight auger of 30 cm diameter and 12 m length, installed at the Experimental Field of Foundation and Soil Mechanics at UNICAMP. The pile was submitted to slow and quick static loading compression tests. A comparison is made with the results of load tests on continuous flight auguer, of the same length, done before on this site. Finally, some recommendations are presented based on the research and on the follow-up of constructions, allowing to evaluate patterns of good and bad execution.

Tem sido observado, de longa data, que ensaios de carregamento dinâmico e provas de carga estática realizados em estacas cravadas após diferentes intervalos de tempo da cravação mostram que podem ocorrer variações nas suas capacidades de carga ao longo do tempo, que em certos casos levam ao aumento da resistência do solo e em outros casos resultam na diminuição da resistência do solo. O trabalho apresenta uma revisão bibliográfica do fenômeno de ganho, com o tempo, de resistência de estacas cravadas em solos argilosos conhecido por efeito \"set-up\", cujos principais mecanismos são explicados por teorias relacionadas à variação das pressões neutras, geradas ao redor das estacas durante a cravação. O método adotado nas análises envolve conceitos da teoria da expansão da cavidade cilíndrica, onde o objetivo principal é entender o comportamento de estacas cravadas em solos argilosos, nos quais o efeito \"set-up\" é normalmente mais acentuado. Os fenômenos pertinentes são avaliados através de análises teóricas, usando o método de Randolph, e numéricas, recorrendo ao método dos elementos finitos. Estas análises foram validadas através de modelagens numéricas comparadas a dados de campo apresentados por ETC (Earth Technology Corporation), sendo observada boa aderência entre os dados de campos e os resultados das estimativas teóricas. A aplicação desta metodologia permite estimar variações tanto das tensões radiais efetivas quanto dos atritos laterais unitários em função do tempo, levando em conta dois parâmetros mais relevantes, a saber, resistência não-drenada e coeficiente de adensamento primário horizontal. Comparações são feitas a ensaios de carregamento dinâmico realizados em estacas cravadas em uma obra da Baixada Santista (SP). Os resultados obtidos mostram uma dispersão no ganho das resistências das estacas analisadas, mas com variações dentro de uma faixa de valores relativamente estreita. Além disso, revelam valores teóricos de \"set-up\", relativo a parcela de atrito lateral, em um intervalo entre 2,0 e 2,5 aproximadamente, 20 dias após a cravação. Apesar das dispersões encontradas, inerentes a este tipo de estudo, considera-se que os resultados obtidos significam um importante passo para melhor entendimento do efeito \"set-up\". / For a long time, it has been observed that load tests performed on driven piles show that there may be variations in load capacity over time, which in some cases lead to an increase in soil resistance and in other cases result in decrease of soil resistance. In this study, a review is presented about the mechanisms that lead to the gains in pile load capacity with time, known as \"set-up\", whose main mechanisms are explained by theories related to the excess porepressures generated around the piles during installation. The presented method involves the theory of cylindrical cavity expansion, where the main objective is to understand the behavior of driven piles in clayey soils, in which \"Set-up\" is usually more pronounced. The relevant phenomena are evaluated by theoretical analysis, based in Randolph\'s method, and numerical analysis, using the finite element method. These analyzes were validated through numerical analysis compared to field data presented by ETC (Earth Technology Corporation). Good agreement has been observed between field data and the theoretical results. The methodology allows to estimate variations in both the effective radial stress and the unit friction resistance over time, considering two main parameters, undrained shear strength and horizontal coefficient of consolidation. Comparisons are made to dynamic load tests conducted on driven piles located in Santos Coastal Plane (\"Baixada Santista\"), in São Paulo - Brazil. A dispersion in the results of the load capacities has been observed, but within a relatively narrow range of values. In adittion, the theoretical values of lateral \"set-up\" were obtained in a range between 2,0 and 2,5 approximately 20 days after installation. Knowing that dispersions are inherent to this type of study, it is considered that the results imply an important step to a better understanding of the \"set-up\".