The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill (DWH) released about 4.4 million barrels of crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico (GOM), making it one of the largest oil spills in U.S. history. Additionally, the depth of the spill (i.e., 1500 meters) created a unique research opportunity because most oil spills occur at the surface and affect coastal rather than deepwater habitats. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are the most toxic components of oil, and are often the focus of oil exposure studies. PAHs are quickly metabolized by vertebrates; therefore, indicators of biological responses to PAH exposure (PAH “biomarkers”) such as the levels of PAH detoxification enzymes and the resulting metabolites are commonly used to examine oil exposure. This study measured multiple PAH biomarkers including hepatic activity of the PAH detoxification enzymes cytochrome P4501a1 (CYP1A) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST), as well as biliary PAH metabolites in deep sea sharks and bony fishes from areas affected by the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill. Samples were collected from 2011-2013 from seven species of sharks, with special focus on the four most abundant deep sea species: Centrophorus niakang, Centrophorus cf granulosus, Squalus cubensis and Squalus cf mitsikurii. Overall enzyme activity was low in these sharks, yet it was higher in oiled sites compared to reference locations. Additionally some species showed declining CYP1A activity since the time of the oil spill, suggesting exposure to CYP-inducing compounds during the beginning of the survey period. Last, PAHs of a petrogenic nature were more abundant in oiled sites compared to reference locations. Overall, this project provides the much need biomarker data for sharks as well as insight on exposure and metabolism of PAHs in deep sea sharks after the DWH.

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of social media on crisis communication. To evaluate this impact, a case study method was utilized examining the crisis communication response of the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill on April 20, 2010. This study focused on the response of the responsible party, British Petroleum, and the general public over three social media: Facebook, Twitter, and blogs. Through extensive analysis of both the company's and public response to the Gulf spill, nine implications were identified regarding social media's influence on crisis communication. These implications highlighted the potential for organizations to build interpersonal relationships with its publics. These relationships were found to be crucial in times of crises. The implications of this study also pointed to interactivity, using a "human voice," trust, and credibility as crucial factors in building these relationships and leading an effective crisis response across social media. This study also noted the new stress for organization's to respond quickly to crises as a result of instant news brought by social media. Implications of this study also highlighted social media's influence on individuals becoming contributing members of a crisis response. While social media has influenced the practice of crisis communication in many ways, this study found that the principles and ethics of the field have remained the same. In conclusion, analysis suggests that BP neglected using social media in its crisis response, a channel which has entered the mainstream of crisis communication. As a result, this study recommends the use of social media before, during, and after a crisis to ensure the welfare of a company and its relationship with its publics.

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Notre étude relève d’une analyse exploratoire fondée sur une étude de cas. En partant d’un exemple de débat articulé autour d’un enjeu public, en l’occurrence la responsabilité sociale d’entreprise (RSE), nous appréhendons le discours comme un instrument de pouvoir déployé par des acteurs en position conflictuelle. Nous prenons comme un cas d’étude la crise écologique provoquée par British Petroleum (BP) au large du Golfe de Mexique le 20 avril 2010. Pour sélectionner notre corpus, nous avons désigné deux populations cibles de discours, en l’occurrence le discours tenu par le gouvernement américain (discours d’Obama) et le discours représentant l’avis officiel de BP (communiqués de presse de BP). Nous avons analysé les discours publics d’Obama et de BP datant du 20 avril 2010 jusqu’au 19 septembre 2010. Nous avons considéré tout discours produit dans un contexte conflictuel travaillé par une crise comme un instrument porteur symboliquement des signes de pouvoir et mobilisant des rapports de force entre les acteurs impliqués. Nous partons de l’hypothèse suivante : les discours organisationnel et gouvernemental étudiés et produits dans un contexte de crise, sont forcément des discours conflictuels au sens de Windisch (1987). Et nous avons utilisé la grille d’analyse élaborée par Windisch (1987) pour mettre en exergue le fonctionnement interne d’un discours conflictuel envisagé comme un vecteur du pouvoir et de légitimation. Nous avons précédé l’analyse de discours, méthode principale dans notre étude, par une analyse de contenu qualitative. Le recours à l’analyse de contenu se justifie par notre souci de déterminer les divers thèmes développés dans le discours, d’examiner comment les acteurs imprègnent de sens le thème de la RSE et de poser le corpus dans sa réalité propre, en ayant recours au logiciel d’analyse de contenu qualitative HYPERRESEARCH. En outre, en mobilisant les présupposés théoriques et les outils méthodologiques issus de l’analyse de discours, nous avons ausculté le potentiel performatif légitimateur des discours construits et élaborés dans un contexte de communication conflictuelle. Pour ce faire, nous avons utilisé le logiciel d’analyse textuelle TROPES reconnu comme un outil d’analyse textuelle capable de générer des modèles représentatifs de la structure du corpus et de son organisation thématique. NOTIONS-CLÉS Discours conflictuel, stratégies discursives, RSE, légitimité, pouvoir, tandem État/firme. / Our study is intended to be an exploratory analysis based on a case study. Starting from a sample debate articulated around a public issue, namely the corporate social responsibility (CSR), we apprehend the discourse as an instrument of power deployed by actors in a conflict position. We take the ecological crisis caused by British Petroleum (BP) in the Gulf of Mexico since April 20, 2010 as a case study, and the reaction of the U.S. administration to intervene and reassure the public opinion alarmed by this crisis. In order to select our corpus, we have identified two target populations of discourse, in this case the speech given by the U.S. government (Obama's speech) and discourses representing the official opinion of BP (BP's press releases) dated April 20, 2010 until September 19, 2010. We considered any discourse occurring in a context of conflict symbolically as a power signs carrier and a mobilizing instrument of power relations between the involved actors. We start from the hypothesis stating that organizational and governmental discourses, studied and produced in a crisis context, are necessarily conflictual discourses within the meaning of Windisch (1987). And we used the analytical framework developed by Windisch (1987) to highlight the internal functioning of a confrontational speech seen as a vector of power and legitimacy. In our research, we preceded the discourse analysis, the main method in our study, by a qualitative content analysis. The use of content analysis aims to determine the various themes developed in the discourse, examine how actors define the CSR topic and put the corpus in its own reality, by using the HYPERRESEARCH qualitative content analysis software. In addition, by implementing the theoretical assumptions and methodological tools from discourse analysis, we auscultated the performative legitimating potential of discourses constructed and developed in a conflict communication context. We used the TROPES text analysis software recognized as a textual analysis tool able to generate representative models of the corpus structure and its thematic organization. KEY CONCEPTS Confrontational discourse, discursive strategies, CSR, legitimacy, power, tandem of government and enterprise.

A field survey was conducted following the Deepwater Horizon blowout and it was noted that resulting coastal petroleum deposits possessed distinct geometries, ranging from small tar balls to expansive horizontal oil sheets. A laboratory study evaluated the effect of oil deposit geometry on localized gradients of electron acceptors and microbial community composition, factors that are critical to accurately estimating biodegradation rates. One-dimensional top-flow sand columns with 12-hour simulated tidal cycles compared two contrasting geometries (isolated tar "balls" versus horizontal "sheets") relative to an oil-free control. Significant differences in the effluent dissolved oxygen and sulfate concentrations were noted among the columns, indicating presence of anaerobic zones in the oiled columns, particularly in the sheet condition. Furthermore, quantification of genetic markers of electron acceptor and catabolic conditions via quantitative polymerase chain reaction of dsrA (sulfate-reduction), mcrA (methanogenesis), and cat23 (oxygenation of aromatics) genes in column cores suggested more extensive anaerobic conditions induced by the sheet relative to the ball geometry. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis similarly revealed that distinct gradients of bacterial communities established in response to the different geometries. Thus, petroleum deposit geometry impacts local redox and microbial characteristics and may be a key factor for advancing attenuation models and prioritizing cleanup. / Master of Science

Les radars à synthèse d’ouverture (RSO) polarimétriques sont devenus incontournables dans le domaine de la télédétection, grâce à leur zone de couverture étendue, ainsi que leur capacité à acquérir des données dans n’importe quelles conditions atmosphériques de jour comme de nuit. Au cours des trois dernières décennies, plusieurs RSO polarimétriques ont été utilisés portant une variété de modes d’imagerie, tels que la polarisation unique, la polarisation double et également des modes dits pleinement polarimétriques. Grâce aux recherches récentes, d’autres modes alternatifs, tels que la polarisation hybride et compacte, ont été proposés pour les futures missions RSOs. Toutefois, un débat anime la communauté de la télédétection quant à l’utilité des modes alternatifs et quant au compromis entre la polarimétrie double et la polarimétrie totale. Cette thèse contribue à ce débat en analysant et comparant ces différents modes d’imagerie RSO dans une variété d’applications, avec un accent particulier sur la surveillance maritime (la détection des navires et de marées noires). Pour nos comparaisons, nous considérons un paramètre fondamental, appelé le degré de polarisation (DoP). Ce paramètre scalaire a été reconnu comme l’un des paramètres les plus pertinents pour caractériser les ondes électromagnétiques partiellement polarisées. A l’aide d’une analyse statistique détaillée sur les images polarimétriques RSO, nous proposons des estimateurs efficaces du DoP pour les systèmes d’imagerie cohérente et incohérente. Ainsi, nous étendons la notion de DoP aux différents modes d’imagerie polarimétrique hybride et compacte. Cette étude comparative réalisée dans différents contextes d’application dégage des propriétés permettant de guider le choix parmi les différents modes polarimétriques. Les expériences sont effectuées sur les données polarimétriques provenant du satellite Canadian RADARSAT-2 et le RSO aéroporté Américain AirSAR, couvrant divers types de terrains tels que l’urbain, la végétation et l’océan. Par ailleurs nous réalisons une étude détaillée sur les potentiels du DoP pour la détection et la reconnaissance des marées noires basée sur les acquisitions récentes d’UAVSAR, couvrant la catastrophe de Deepwater Horizon dans le golfe du Mexique. / Polarimetric Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems have become highly fruitful thanks to their wide area coverage and day and night all-weather capabilities. Several polarimetric SARs have been flown over the last few decades with a variety of polarimetric SAR imaging modes; traditional ones are linear singleand dual-pol modes. More sophisticated ones are full-pol modes. Other alternative modes, such as hybrid and compact dual-pol, have also been recently proposed for future SAR missions. The discussion is vivid across the remote sensing society about both the utility of such alternative modes, and also the trade-off between dual and full polarimetry. This thesis contributes to that discussion by analyzing and comparing different polarimetric SAR modes in a variety of geoscience applications, with a particular focus on maritime monitoring and surveillance. For our comparisons, we make use of a fundamental, physically related discriminator called the Degree of Polarization (DoP). This scalar parameter has been recognized as one of the most important parameters characterizing a partially polarized electromagnetic wave. Based on a detailed statistical analysis of polarimetric SAR images, we propose efficient estimators of the DoP for both coherent and in-coherent SAR systems. We extend the DoP concept to different hybrid and compact SAR modes and compare the achieved performance with different full-pol methods. We perform a detailed study of vessel detection and oil-spill recognition, based on linear and hybrid/compact dual-pol DoP, using recent data from the Deepwater Horizon oil-spill, acquired by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)/Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle Synthetic Aperture Radar (UAVSAR). Extensive experiments are also performed over various terrain types, such as urban, vegetation, and ocean, using the data acquired by the Canadian RADARSAT-2 and the NASA/JPL Airborne SAR (AirSAR) system.

Oil well blow outs are investigated to determine methods to quickly and accurately respond to an emergency situation. Flow rate is needed to guide containment and dispersal operations. The Stratified Integral Multiphase Plume, SIMP, model was used to investigate the range of initial conditions available to integral modeling. Sensitivity to initial conditions is modest, but without experimental data at the appropriate scale the most accurate condition is unable to be determined. Flow rates are difficult to directly measure in blow out situations, so another method must be determined; therefore, sensitivity of several parameters to flow rate was also evaluated. Methane concentration in the first intrusion can be used in conjunction with velocity and trap height measurements to determine flow rate using an integral model. Plume width and temperature were determined to have little sensitivity. Separately, a containment dome was tested in the laboratory to determine if a full scale dome can be used to contain an oil leak in the field. The dome was found to have satisfactory entrapment in the designed position.

The microbiome plays a key symbiotic role in maintaining host health and aids in acquiring nutrients, supporting development and immune function, and modulating behavior. However, more research is needed to elucidate the potential impact of environmental pollutants on host microbial communities and how microbiomes can modulate the toxicity of contaminants to the host. Through a literature review of 18 studies that assessed the impacts of various anthropogenic chemicals on fish-associated microbiomes, we found that toxicants generally decrease microbial diversity, which could lead to long-term health impacts if chronically stressed, and can increase the host’s susceptibility to disease as well as the chemical resistance of certain microbes. These findings led us to explore the impacts of one of the reviewed contaminants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), typically found in oil. The Deepwater Horizon disaster of April 2010 was the largest oil spill in U.S. history and had catastrophic effects on several ecologically important fish species in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM). This study tested the hypotheses that exposure to weathered oil would cause significant shifts in fish gut-associated microbial communities, with taxa known for hydrocarbon degradation increasing in abundance and that foraging behavior would decrease, potentially due to microbial dysbiosis via the gut-brain axis. We characterized the gut microbiome (with 16S rRNA gene sequencing) of a native GoM estuarine species, the sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus). Fish were exposed to High Energy Water Accommodated Fractions (HEWAF; tPAH = 80.99 ± 12.5 μg/L) of oil over a 7-day period and whole gastrointestinal tracts were sampled for microbiome analyses. A foraging behavioral assay was used to determine feeding efficiency before and after oil exposure. The fish gut microbiome did not experience any significant changes in alpha or beta diversity but known hydrocarbon degrading taxa were noticeably present in oil-exposed communities and were absent in controls. We found the order Pseudomonadales, the family Paenibacillaceae, and Pseudomonas pachastrellae to be among these, with Pseudomonadales increasing in abundance. Foraging behavior was not significantly affected by oil exposure. This work highlights the need for further research to elucidate the functional metagenomic responses of the fish gut-microbiome under oil spill conditions.

Within two months of its emergence, the BP Gulf Oil spill had become the worst environmental disaster in United States history. However, for those studying public relations the oil spill brought more than ecological disaster, by providing a case study of crisis communication. Although there were a number of crisis responses from BP throughout the course of the oil spill, the primary crisis response crafted by BP was an image restoration campaign which premiered in early June 2010. This campaign, though it exhibits qualities of a standard crisis response, was wildly unpopular with the United States Government and citizenry. This rhetorical analysis attempts to uncover the reasons behind the campaign's failure through an application of the genre model of criticism. By defining the crisis communication genre and applying it to the artifact, the current study uncovers the reasons behind the failure of the campaign. Through this discussion, this analysis identifies that BP did not address all necessary exigencies, nor did it consider the influence a rhetor can have on a message. An explanation for the failure of BP' s campaign provided a plethora of implications to the fields of public . relations and rhetorical criticism, while beginning a discussion to help define the crisis communication genre.

The explosion of the Deepwater Horizon oil platform on April 20, 2010 resulted in the second largest oil spill in history. In this study, the distribution and chemical composition of hydrocarbons within a 45 km radius of the blowout was investigated. A complete set of hydrocarbon data were acquired from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and from BP, including data from 16 research missions collected over eight weeks. The distribution of hydrocarbons was found to be more dispersed over a wider area in subsurface waters than previously predicted or reported. Several hydrocarbon plumes were identified including a near-surface plume (0.5 to 50 m), two small mid-depth plume (240 to 290 m and 850 to 880 m), and a large deepwater plume approximately 1,050 to 1,300 m below surface. Water soluble compounds were preferentially extracted from the rising oil in deepwater, and were found at potentially toxic levels both in and outside of areas previously reported to contain the majority of hydrocarbons. Data collected from different research missions were measured for a wide variety of chemical compounds, but not every sample was analyzed for the same chemical compounds. To overcome the challenge of variability in sample data, a non-parametric method of evaluating the percentage of detectable results, was used for all data analysis in addition to evaluation of total sample concentrations. The two analysis techniques yielded similar results. This approach may be useful in other studies in which samples are measured for varying number of compounds and have varying detection limits. The distribution and toxicity of hydrocarbons in sediments between August and October, 2010 was also investigated and was found to be fairly localized.