The shock prod defensive burying test has proven incredibly reliable and instrumental in determining the underpinnings of normal anxiety in rodents. Largely ignored in tests of defensive burying, however, is the capacity for individual animals to display marked variations in active and passive coping behaviors. To unmask the neurobiological correlates of this behavioral differentiation, rats were exposed to a mousetrap that was remotely triggered upon approach to remove the quality of pain. This design invited striking variations in defensive burying behavior levels, in which some rats either buried robustly or showed little to no levels of defensive burying. Furthermore, differences in burying behavior were associated with marked differences in the central expression of arginine vasopressin (AVP) and oxytocin (OT). Thus, relative to animals showing no significant levels of defensive burying activity, rats showing sustained elevations in defensive burying expressed higher levels of AVP mRNA and increased numbers of androgen receptor positive cells in the medial amygdala and posterior bed nuclei of the stria terminalis, brain regions that integrate emotional appraisal and sensory information. In contrast, animals showing little to no defensive burying responses expressed relatively higher levels of AVP and OT mRNA within the supraoptic nucleus and subregions of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus responsible for neuroendocrine and autonomic function. CRH mRNA levels did not vary as a function of burying activity in the central nucleus of the amygdala, the anterior division of the bed nuclei of the stria terminalis, nor in the paraventricular nucleus. These findings suggest a role for central AVP and OT in mediating differential defensive behaviors, and demonstrate the utility of using a pain free test of conditioned defensive burying as a framework for exploring individual differences in behavioral coping and neuroendocrine capacity. / Medicine, Faculty of / Graduate

Introduction: Defensive functioning may play an important role in the development and treatment of binge-eating disorder (BED). The Defense Mechanism Rating Scale (DMRS) is a widely used observer rating measure of defensive functioning. However, there is little research on defensive functioning and the DMRS in BED. This dissertation includes three studies on defensive functioning in individuals with BED. Study one assessed the validity and reliability of the DMRS when used to rate Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) transcripts, and compared defensive functioning between women with and without BED. Study two compared change in defensive functioning in women with BED who received Group Psychodynamic-Interpersonal Psychotherapy (GPIP) versus those in a waitlist no treatment control condition. Study three assessed the impact of other group therapy members’ defensive functioning on an individual group member’s treatment outcomes (i.e., binge-eating frequency and interpersonal functioning). Thus, the overall goals of this dissertation were to better understand the role of defensive functioning in BED, the degree to which defensive functioning changes due to group therapy, and the impact in the context of the therapy group’s defensive functioning on individual outcomes. Method: Participants with for this study were recruited from three previous investigations. Two clinical trials of group psychotherapy provided data of individuals with BED: (1) a randomized trial (N = 85) in which participants were assigned to GPIP (n = 35) or a waitlist control (n = 50), and (2) an uncontrolled study in which all participants with BED (N = 101) received GPIP. A total of 17 therapy groups were formed across both studies, with each group consisting of five to 11 members. In addition, a third study provided data from two comparison groups without BED: women who were overweight/obese (body mass index [BMI] > 27 kg/m2; n = 47) and women who were normal weight (BMI = 20 to 25 kg/m2; n = 49). Participants with BED completed a battery of questionnaires and the AAI at two time-points (i.e., pre-treatment/pre-waitlist and six months post-treatment/post-waitlist). Participants without BED completed the same battery of questionnaires and the AAI at one time-point and did not receive treatment. All AAI audio recordings were transcribed and used to code defensive functioning. Results: In study one, the DMRS coded from AAI transcripts demonstrated acceptable inter-rater reliability; good convergent validity, as it was significantly correlated with other related constructs (i.e., interpersonal functioning, reflective functioning, and attachment insecurity); and acceptable predictive validity, as women with BED had significantly lower defensive functioning than normal weight women without BED. In study two, those who received GPIP had significantly greater improvements in defensive functioning from pre-treatment to six months post-treatment compared to the waitlist control group. Follow-up analyses revealed that the average number of High Adaptive defenses significantly increased from pre-treatment to six months post-treatment in the GPIP condition, but not in the waitlist control condition; and significantly more participants assigned to the waitlist control condition deteriorated in their defensive functioning from pre-waitlist to six months post-waitlist than those assigned to GPIP. In study three, individual defensive functioning scores at pre-treatment were not significantly associated with either treatment outcome (i.e., binge-eating frequency or interpersonal distress) at six months post-treatment. However, other group members’ mean defensive functioning scores at pre-treatment were significantly associated with individual interpersonal distress, but not binge-eating frequency, at six months post-treatment. Discussion: Overall, this dissertation lends further support to the role of defensive functioning in the maintenance and treatment of BED. Individuals with BED tend to use less adaptive defensive functioning, but this can be improved through GPIP. Further, context of the therapy group in terms of defensive functioning is particularly important for improving treatment outcomes in individuals with BED. These findings should be replicated across more diverse samples and other types of group psychotherapy. Group therapists can help their patients with BED confront their maladaptive defense mechanisms and binge-eating by tackling their interpersonal distress, and placing sufficient emphasis on the group’s composition in terms of defensive functioning.

Defensive hostility has been attributed as an early risk factor of coronary heart disease. The autonomic characteristics of high defensive, high hostile (HD) and low defensive, high hostile (LD) men and women were assessed with a variety of cardiovascular (CV) measures. Reactivity and recovery to an active laboratory stressor (video game, VG) and a passive laboratory stressor (hand cold pressor, CP) of 15 HD men, 16 LD men, 16 HD women, and 16 LD women were recorded. It was predicted that the CV patterning associated with the HD participants would display more sympathetic and less vagal control as well as the least pronounced recovery from the stressors in comparison to LD participants. Results revealed differential CV responses to the lab tasks by group. HD women displayed consistently high levels of low frequency power heart rate variability (HRV) during baseline and across conditions. HD men exhibited significantly pronounced heart rate reactivity and reduced high frequency power HRV to the CP task in comparison to LD men. Interestingly, LD women displayed weaker blood pressure (BP) recovery to the VG in comparison to HD women, whereas the opposite pattern was observed in BP recovery to the CP. These results suggest that defensiveness and sex may moderate the CV reactivity and recovery to different types of stressors in hostile participants. / Master of Science

Contextual factors linked to behaviour problems in schools include leadership, organisational culture (within individual schools), and levels of teacher stress. Efforts to improve the school environment, reduce teacher stress, and improve student outcomes often have a singular focus on behaviour management policy. The aim of this research concerns the direction of effects from these variables, and offers an alternative perspective on the environment-behaviour equation. That is, while student misbehaviour is viewed as a 'producer' of teacher stress, it may also be perceived as a 'product'. An initial qualitative investigation (Study 1) invited behaviour management staff (N = 23) to participate in focus groups, where three questions were posed in relation to the overall research aims. Content analysis was performed on the transcribed focus group data, and revealed that the hypothesised direction of effect between the variables of interest appeared probable. Participants for the main studies (Studies 2 and 3) were teaching staff (N = 136), school administrators (N = 17) and students referred for behavioural problems (N = 1432) at seven Brisbane metropolitan schools. Teachers and school administrators completed both the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire and the Organisational Culture Inventory, while teachers also completed the Maslach Burnout Inventory. Student data was collated from school records, and grouped according to categories of referral frequency per student. In Study 2, high referral rates were associated with transactional leadership, and the Oppositional aspect of Aggressive-Defensive culture. Low and medium referral rates were associated with transformational leadership and the Dependent, Approval, and Avoidant aspects of Passive-Defensive culture, and the Affiliative aspect of Constructive culture. Regression tests found further support for the proposed path model and the hypothesised direction of effects. Transactional leadership and the Passive-Defensive and Aggressive-Defensive culture types were most influential in prediction of referral rates for student misbehaviour. Unexpectedly, teacher stress was non-significant in explanation of referral rates for student misbehaviour. Study 3 examined hypothesised differences in perception between school administrators and teaching staff, according to the leadership and organisational culture dimensions. Both groups endorsed transformational leadership as the dominant style, although results differed by degree for each group. In terms of school culture, differences between groups were again evident, as teachers' perceptions of school culture were significantly more negative compared to school administrators. Overall, qualified support was found for the hypothesised direction of effects from school environment variables on referral rates for student misbehaviour. Leadership style and school culture emerged as most important for the student outcome variable, and may be important in consideration of school-based approaches to behaviour management. Additionally, teacher stress, while related to school leadership style and organisational culture, appeared to have no effect on student referral rates.

This dissertation addresses the question how democracies defend themselves from political parties and groups which profess antidemocratic values and use violence as one of the means to achieve their goals. In particular this dissertation analyses the range of formal-legal measures and provisions that democracies have at their disposal to constrain their non-democratic groups and political parties, looking at eight advanced European democracies Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. These measures and provisions are identified in constitutional documents, civil law, criminal law, in electoral laws, and other pertinent legal sources passed by the legislature and issued by courts of these countries, pertaining to the regulation of political freedoms, public order, and homeland security. On this basis, the thesis provides an encompassing and systematic assessment of differences and similarities between these democracies and thereby assesses their relative formal-legal democratic defensiveness.

Os vertebrados tetrápodes e ectotérmicos possuem a temperatura do corpo variável de acordo com a temperatura do ambiente. Estudos abordando lagartos e serpentes demonstram que diversos comportamentos ou funções dos vertebrados ectotérmicos sofrem direta ou indiretamente influência da temperatura na adequação biológica (fitness) (BARTHOLOMEW, 1982; HUEY, 1982; LILLYWHITE, 1987, MORI; BURGHARDT, 2001). O comportamento antipredatório constitui um caso especial dos comportamentos sabidamente influenciados pela temperatura, pois parece sofrer diversos tipos de alterações em diferentes grupos de tetrápodes ectotérmicos, como salamandras (BRODIE JR.; DUCEY; LEMOS-ESPINAL, 1991), anfíbios anuros (GOMES; BEVIER; NAVAS, 2002), lagartos (RAND, 1964; HERTZ; HUEY; NEVO, 1982; CROWLEY; PIETRUSZKA, 1983) e serpentes (FITCH, 1965; HERCKROTTE,1967; ARNOLD; BENNETT, 1984; SCHIEFFELIN; QUEIROZ, 1991; KEOGH; DESERTO, 1994; MORI; BURGHARDT, 2001). Esses estudos mostram que a temperatura pode afetar as repostas comportamentais tanto em termos de magnitude quanto de qualidade, o que permite supor que as mudanças no tipo de comportamento com a temperatura sejam consistentes com os efeitos da temperatura sobre o desempenho comportamental. O atual estudo testou, mediante uma análise do comportamento, a serpente Tomodon dorsatus (Dipsadidae) em diferentes temperaturas corpóreas, quando exposta a um estímulo externo simulando um ataque predatório. Esta espécie foi escolhida por apresentar um rico repertório defensivo (BIZERRA, 1998). Para as análises, os comportamentos defensivos foram classificados em dois grandes grupos: agressivos e passivos ou de escape, conforme o comportamento apresentado no momento do estímulo. No decorrer do estudo, foi observado que alguns animais eram excessivamente agressivos enquanto que outros eram extremamente propensos à fuga. Por isso, além da classificação inicial, foi feita outra análise que consistiu em classificar os indivíduos em dois grandes grupos: DPA (defesa por agressão) e FCP (defesa via fuga ou comportamento passivo). Neste estudo, observamos que houve uma grande variação individual no que se refere ao comportamento antipredador e essa diferença entre os indivíduos parece ser mais significante quando comparada à variação eventualmente induzida pela temperatura. / Tetrapodes and ecotermicos vertebrates have a variable body temperature according to the temperature of the environment. Studies addressing lizards and snakes show that several behavior and functions of ectotermicos vertebrates suffer directly or indirectly influence of temperature on biological adequacy (fitness) (BARTHOLOMEW, 1982; HUEY, 1982; LILLYWHITE, 1987, MORI; BURGHARDT, 2001). Anti-predatory behavior constitutes a special case among behaviors influenced by temperature, because it seems to suffer from various types of changes in different groups of tetrápodes ectotermicos as salamanders (BRODIE JR.; DUCEY; LEMOS-ESPINAL, 1991), anuros amphibians (GOMES; BEVIER; NAVAS, 2002), lizards (RAND, 1964; HERTZ; HUEY; NEVO, 1982; CROWLEY; PIETRUSZKA, 1983), and snakes (FITCH, 1965; HERCKROTTE,1967; ARNOLD; BENNETT, 1984; SCHIEFFELIN; QUEIROZ, 1991; KEOGH; DESERTO, 1994; MORI; BURGHARDT, 2001).These studies show that the temperature affects behavioral responses both in terms of magnitude and quality, which suggests that the changes on the type of behavior with temperature be consistent with the effects of temperature on the behavioral performance. The current study tested through an analysis of the behavior Tomodon dorsatus snake (Dipsadidae) at different body temperatures when exposed to an external stimulus simulating a predatory attack. This species was chosen because it presents an enriched defensive repertoire (BIZERRA, 1998). For analysis, the defensive behaviors were classified into two main groups: \"aggressive\" and \"passive or escape as the behavior exhibited when the stimulus. During the study, it was observed that some animals were overly aggressive while others were extremely prone to flight. Therefore, besides the initial classification was made a separate analysis was to classify individual in two groups: DPA and FCP. This division that was useful to analyze the influence of temperature in different animals in their degree of aggressiveness. In this study we found that there was great individual variation in relation to antipredator behavior and the difference between individuals appears to be more significant when compared with the variation may be induced by temperature

No description available.

The aim of the current studies was to first determine the convergent validity of several observer and self-report measures of defense mechanisms, and second to determine whether participants in the depressed and anxious groups could successfully be differentiated using observer and self-report measures of defenses. In Study 1, defensive functioning of 150 university students was assessed using the Defense-Q, Defense Mechanism Rating Scale, Defense Style Questionnaire, and the Defense Mechanisms Inventory. The results of the Pearson r analyses indicated that the defense measures were correlated in a theoretically consistent manner at the overall and defense level analyses, with the strongest relations at the mature and immature ends of the scales. Four of the 17 individual defenses were correlated in a theoretically consistent manner. In Study 2, 1182 university students completed the Personality Assessment Inventory and those scoring in the clinical range on depression or anxiety indices were selected for participation in this study. The extent to which these participants could be correctly classified into their respective groups using defense scores from the Defense-Q and the Defense Style Questionnaire was assessed using discriminant analyses. Results indicated that defense scores from both observer and self-report measures can be used to classify participants correctly into depressed and anxious groups. The Defense-Q discriminant function primarily identified depression-related defenses as important for differentiation, whereas the Defense Style Questionnaire discriminant function primarily identified anxiety-related disorders. Confirmatory stepwise discriminant analyses confirmed that the defenses previously identified in the literature were among the most effective in differentiating between the groups. The results from the present investigation identify substantial differences between the defenses assessed by observer and self-report measures and indicate that both methods can be informative for differentiating between depressed and anxious participants.

The aim of the current studies was to first determine the convergent validity of several observer and self-report measures of defense mechanisms, and second to determine whether participants in the depressed and anxious groups could successfully be differentiated using observer and self-report measures of defenses. In Study 1, defensive functioning of 150 university students was assessed using the Defense-Q, Defense Mechanism Rating Scale, Defense Style Questionnaire, and the Defense Mechanisms Inventory. The results of the Pearson r analyses indicated that the defense measures were correlated in a theoretically consistent manner at the overall and defense level analyses, with the strongest relations at the mature and immature ends of the scales. Four of the 17 individual defenses were correlated in a theoretically consistent manner. In Study 2, 1182 university students completed the Personality Assessment Inventory and those scoring in the clinical range on depression or anxiety indices were selected for participation in this study. The extent to which these participants could be correctly classified into their respective groups using defense scores from the Defense-Q and the Defense Style Questionnaire was assessed using discriminant analyses. Results indicated that defense scores from both observer and self-report measures can be used to classify participants correctly into depressed and anxious groups. The Defense-Q discriminant function primarily identified depression-related defenses as important for differentiation, whereas the Defense Style Questionnaire discriminant function primarily identified anxiety-related disorders. Confirmatory stepwise discriminant analyses confirmed that the defenses previously identified in the literature were among the most effective in differentiating between the groups. The results from the present investigation identify substantial differences between the defenses assessed by observer and self-report measures and indicate that both methods can be informative for differentiating between depressed and anxious participants.

Competitive reaction to entry is an important issue in the marketing and economics areas. The monopolistic incumbent of a market often faces competitive entry if the market is profitable. This is a common issue that often occurs in the market transition from monopoly to competition. The entrant not only enters the market, but also wants to signal to tell consumers his quality level. The incumbent's reaction is also a signal to the consumers. Thus, how should the incumbent do? The paper "Response to Competitive Entry: A Rationale for Delayed Defensive Reaction" which is written by Ajay Kalra, Surendra Rajiv and Kannan Srinivasan (1998) and published in Marketing Science provides a completed and clear explanation of this issue. They claim that the incumbent would delay the defensive reaction to the competitive entry under information asymmetry. But it is still incorrect. Hence, we want to provide a revision to support that delayed defensive reaction is really a rational response to competitive entry, and explain this issue correctly and logically. We analyze the strategic interactions of the incumbent and the entrants which were omitted previously. Finally, we would obtain the conclusion that is also supporting this point of view¡G delayed defensive reaction is really a rational response to competitive. And it is really a Nash equilibrium, no firms would deviate.