The national electricity utility in South Africa, Eskom, is currently under pressure to supply the increasing demand for electricity on a national level. To address this problem in the short term, Eskom partially funds load management and energy efficiency projects. In the meantime, Eskom is also increasing their generation capacity through the erection of new power stations. To finance these capital projects, sharp tariff increases, higher than inflation, are levied, resulting in higher operating expenditures for the consumers. These increased tariffs are especially affecting industrial institutions. Large industries are therefore willing participants in the partially Eskom funded electricity savings programme that hold benefits for both parties. One of these large industries is the Mining Sector. This sector is an energy intensive group and consumes up to 15% of Eskom’s total output. The refrigeration and pumping systems used in the sectors are two of the major electricity consumers. As part of Eskom’s Demand Side Management (DSM) initiative, an electrical energy savings project was implemented in the deep mines’ chilled water systems. The cooling system is optimally controlled to ensure less underground water usage. This ensures that less water is pumped out by the dewatering system, reducing electrical energy usage. A variety of components, such as refrigeration and energy recovery depend on chilled water to function properly. Every relevant component was simulated and the verification of results was done through correlations with process data obtained from the mine. The simulation results showed acceptable error margins that would not influence accuracy. Two sites where a water supply optimisations project was implemented were selected as case studies. In both case studies, thermal results of the refrigeration and cooling system showed a reduction in cooling effectiveness. In case study A, the energy recovery components showed negative results. All of the results were converted to electrical energy costs to enable comparison. Constraints were evident during deep mine water supply optimisation. These were determined and the thermal effects were simulated. This study enabled basic quantifications of environmental impact and also determining project cost savings. The studies showed that positive and negative effects can be brought on in the mining systems with the reduction in chilled water use. In some cases the cooling system components showed a decrease in cooling effectiveness, but exhibited electrical energy savings. This impact was during periods where no personnel were underground in the working area. In conclusion the study also showed that cost savings resulting from the reduced chilled water are substantially higher than negative financial losses seen on the other components. / MIng (Electrical and Electronic Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Large penetration of distributed generation from variable renewable energy sources, increased consumption flexibility on the demand side and the electrification of transportation pose great challenges to existing and future electric distribution networks. This thesis studies the roles of several actors involved in electric distribution systems through electricity consumption data analysis and simulation models. Results show that real-time electricity pricing adoption in the residential sector offers economic benefits for end consumers. This occurs even without the adoption of demand-side management strategies, while real-time pricing also brings new opportunities for increasing consumption flexibility. This flexibility will play a critical role in the electrification of transportation, where scheduled charging will be required to allow large penetration of EVs without compromising the network's reliability and to minimize upgrades on the existing grid. All these issues add significant complexity to the existing infrastructure and conventional passive components are no longer sufficient to guarantee safe and reliable network operation. Active distribution networks are therefore required, and consequently robust and flexible modelling and simulation computational tools are needed for their optimal design and control. The modelling approach presented in this thesis offers a viable solution by using an equation-based object-oriented language that allows developing open source network component models that can be shared and used unambiguously across different simulation environments.

Peak electricity demand in South Africa will exceed the available operational generation capacity in 2007. The state utility Eskom is addressing this challenge, inter aha, with the implementation of the Demand-side Management (DSM) initiative. The aim of DSM is to defer the building of additional power stations by modifying the end-user pattern to reduce electrical load during the morning and evening peaks. At the end of 2005 the DSM programme has only achieved 30°/o of its target. Some of the biggest problems are the lack of knowledge on how to perform ESCO audits and availability of tools and procedures to enable Energy Service Companies (ESCOs) to evaluate DSM potential. Studies in South Africa have shown that 20°/o of the total municipal energy is utilised in commercial buildings. Additional investigations have shown that in the commercial sector approximately 50% of energy is used for air conditioning. Energy savings of around 30% can be realised through improved management procedures and retrofit projects of HVAC systems of existing buildings. Telecommunication companies own and operate a large portfolio of diverse buildings. It was shown that these buildings are very inefficient in terms of energy usage. Performing ESCO analyses on these building portfolios present huge savings opportunities for the building owners as well as load reduction opportunities to help meet DSM targets. ESCOs however face major problems in evaluating DSM projects on telecommunication facilities. Some of these problems are: time to perform the ESCO audits on such a large portfolio of buildings; skill levels of available personnel; lack of experience and structured audit process; availability of information; data capturing of information; determining the impact of the retrofits and calculating the savings and financial benefits of retrofits. Obtaining approval for DSM projects is also a lengthy process. Smaller ESCOs cannot afford to commit resources to ESCO investigations only to recover their investment after project approval. Having an ESCO procedure that will speed up the audit process will help the ESCO to minimise resources that need to be committed to these investigations. Having a tested and reliable ESCO procedure will also help Eskom since they will receive more and better quality DSM proposals. A new ESCO procedure for telecommunications facilities was developed. The primary requirements for the new ESCO procedure are that it should be simple, stable, fast and accurate. This procedure is evaluated against the known energy management opportunities in telecommunication facilities. Some of the benefits of the new ESCO procedure are: time taken to perform ESCO analysis on all types of buildings is drastically reduced; lower qualified personnel can be used to perform the ESCO analysis; any type of HVAC system configuration can be accommodated; new data capturing procedures ensure that only essential data is captured; integrated simulation software is used that can easy and accurately simulate the building operations and retrofits on a building; retrofit options suitable for telecommunication facilities are identified; contribution to the DSM programme is evaluated; financial evaluation of the retrofits and feasibility for DSM funding and results are integrated into a standardised reporting format. The new ESCO procedure was implemented on several case studies within the telecommunication infrastructure. Five different types of buildings were selected to implement the ESCO procedure. Each step of the procedure was evaluated and tested against the requirements of the new ESCO procedure. It was proven through implementation that the new ESCO procedure is successful in solving the unique problems in performing ESCO analyses for telecommunications facilities. Valuable insight into the problems that can occur during the ESCO process was highlighted, and recommendation for future work was presented. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Electrical Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

This master thesis deals with the question how you could use “demand side management” to influence the consumer on the energy market. Because of the increasing part of the renewable energy the stability in the energy production will drop. With new technology the building of energy storages will be one way to deal with the problem. Another way is to influence the consumer. Firstly the thesis will give a brief overview about the current development of renewable energy. This includes the production time and location of every energy sources. After that the next chapter is about the consummation side of the energy market with the prices. A detailed examination will show the biggest groups of demander and their location and time of consumption. The third chapter will describes the German electricity market including the main problems with demand side management on this market: the low price elasticity. The last chapter will take in the actual demand side management. Methods and applications will show a possible way to overcome the main problem but can’t bring a universal solution. The reasons are the low amount of data referring to renewable energy and applied demand side management and the development of a new market with a less of fossil fuel. The new market would change all actual concepts of pricing and vice versa the consumption.

[pt] A eficiência energética (EE) terá um papel cada vez mais importante para garantir o futuro das novas gerações. Assim, o objetivo principal deste trabalho é estimar o quanto o PNEf (Plano Nacional de Eficiência Energética), publicado pelo governo brasileiro no final de 2011 irá economizar ao longo dos próximos 5 anos, evitando a construção de usinas de energia adicionais, bem como reduzindo a emissão de gases de efeito estufa na atmosfera. É também objetivo deste trabalho definir as premissas e formular diretrizes para que um possível leilão de eficiência energética seja implantado no Brasil. O custo marginal de operacão é calculado no planejamento de médio prazo do despacho para o sistema hidro-térmico brasileiro utilizando Programação Dinâmica Dual Estocástica. Foi incorporado no modelo do despacho hidro-térmico as políticas de eficiência energética de forma estocástica, havendo assim, vários cenários para a demanda de energia elétrica. Demonstrou-se que, mesmo para uma modesta redução do consumo com políticas de eficiência energética (menor que 1 porcento por ano), há uma economia nos próximos 5 anos em torno de 237 milhões de reais no cenário conservador e 268 milhões de reais no cenário otimista. Em comparação, a nova usina hidrelétrica Belo Monte irá custar em torno de 26 bilhões de reais a serem pagos ao longo de um período de 30 anos (ou seja, 867 milhões de reais em 1 anos). Conclui-se que, políticas de eficiência energética são preferíveis à construção de uma nova usina, mesmo sendo esta de fonte hidráulica. / [en] Energy efficiency will play an increasingly important role in future generations. The aim of this work is to estimate how much the PNEf (National Plan for Energy Efficiency) launched by the Brazilian government in 2011 will save over the next 5 years by avoiding the construction of additional power plants, as well as the amount of the CO2 emission. Besides, it is the aim of this work introduces the premises and guidelines of a possible demand side bidding in Brazil. The marginal operating cost is computed for medium term planning of the dispatching of power plants in the hydro-thermal system using Stochastic Dynamic Dual Programming, after incorporating stochastic energy efficiencies into the demand for electricity. We demonstrate that even for a modest improvement in energy efficiency (less than 1 percent per year), the savings over the next 5 years range from 237 million reais in the conservative scenario to 268 million reais in the optimistic scenario. By comparison the new Belo Monte hydro-electric plant will cost 26 billion reais to be repaid over a 30 year period (i.e. 867 million reais in 1 years). So in Brazil energy efficiency policies are preferable to building a new power plant.

O objetivo do trabalho é analisar os protocolos mais conhecidos de medição e verificação de programas de eficiência energética sob da ótica a aplicação do recurso privado em projetos de eficiência energética. A simples comparação de faturas de energia e a utilização não rigorosa de indicadores para determinação da energia economizada praticamente deixa de ser uma opção com a disponibilização de padrões compreensivos de M&V. Para tal são analisados estudos de caso de projetos de eficiência energética nos segmentos comercial e industrial e estes indicam um distanciamento entre as ferramentas modernas de M&V e a realidade, de modo que há dúvidas sobre garantia da sustentabilidade das ações ao longo do tempo. Dessa análise dos protocolos e estudos de caso foram identificadas demandas que são partes de uma metodologia proposta em 9 etapas focadas na sustentabilidade da energia economizada. A aplicação dessa metodologia é complementar à aplicação dos protocolos, tal que o engenheiro de eficiência energética possa pensar em todo processo de gestão e não apenas na implementação das MCEs. Esse trabalho conclui que a simples aderência aos protocolos de M&V é insuficiente para garantir a sustentabilidade das ações de conservação de energia a longo prazo. / The purpose of this work is to analyze the most well known Measurement and Verification protocols to energy efficiency programs under private capital owner perspective. The simple comparison between energy bills and the non-rigorous use of energy efficiency indicators in the energy savings calculation are not an option anymore with the introduction of comprehensive M&V protocols. With this aim, energy efficiency case studies are analyzed in the commercial and industrial sectors and indicated theres a gap between the modern M&V tools and the reality. Doubts around the sustainability of energy savings in the long term raised. Based on literature review, analysis of protocols and case studies, improvement opportunities were identified and are part of a 9 steps methodology focused on the sustainability of energy savings proposed in this work. This methodology works in cooperation with current M&V protocols. The EE engineer shall then be able to think in the overall management process and not only in the Energy Conservation Measure. This work concluded that the M&V tools adherence solely is insufficient to guarantee the sustainability of energy savings in the long term.

O objetivo do trabalho é analisar os protocolos mais conhecidos de medição e verificação de programas de eficiência energética sob da ótica a aplicação do recurso privado em projetos de eficiência energética. A simples comparação de faturas de energia e a utilização não rigorosa de indicadores para determinação da energia economizada praticamente deixa de ser uma opção com a disponibilização de padrões compreensivos de M&V. Para tal são analisados estudos de caso de projetos de eficiência energética nos segmentos comercial e industrial e estes indicam um distanciamento entre as ferramentas modernas de M&V e a realidade, de modo que há dúvidas sobre garantia da sustentabilidade das ações ao longo do tempo. Dessa análise dos protocolos e estudos de caso foram identificadas demandas que são partes de uma metodologia proposta em 9 etapas focadas na sustentabilidade da energia economizada. A aplicação dessa metodologia é complementar à aplicação dos protocolos, tal que o engenheiro de eficiência energética possa pensar em todo processo de gestão e não apenas na implementação das MCEs. Esse trabalho conclui que a simples aderência aos protocolos de M&V é insuficiente para garantir a sustentabilidade das ações de conservação de energia a longo prazo. / The purpose of this work is to analyze the most well known Measurement and Verification protocols to energy efficiency programs under private capital owner perspective. The simple comparison between energy bills and the non-rigorous use of energy efficiency indicators in the energy savings calculation are not an option anymore with the introduction of comprehensive M&V protocols. With this aim, energy efficiency case studies are analyzed in the commercial and industrial sectors and indicated theres a gap between the modern M&V tools and the reality. Doubts around the sustainability of energy savings in the long term raised. Based on literature review, analysis of protocols and case studies, improvement opportunities were identified and are part of a 9 steps methodology focused on the sustainability of energy savings proposed in this work. This methodology works in cooperation with current M&V protocols. The EE engineer shall then be able to think in the overall management process and not only in the Energy Conservation Measure. This work concluded that the M&V tools adherence solely is insufficient to guarantee the sustainability of energy savings in the long term.

<p>Den här uppsatsen hade som syfte att undersöka sambandet mellan Sverigedemokraternas valresultat i kommunvalet 2006 och ett antal relevanta variabler utvalda i dialog med tidigare forskning och teoribildning angående väljarmobilisering för radikala högerpopulistiska partier (RHP). Sverigedemokraterna är landets största och mest inflytelserika RHP-parti och bygger sin politik framförallt kring en populistisk anti-etablissemangskritik samt en främlingsfientlighet grundad i den etno-pluralistiska doktrinen.</p><p>Det finns många olika teorier angående väljarmobilisering för RHP-partier. Man har bl.a. menat att lågutbildade okvalificerade individer med små ekonomiska medel är mer benägna att rösta på RHP-partier än högutbildade och förhållandevis välbärgade individer. Arbetslöshet och nivå av invandring har därutöver lyfts fram som betydande förklaringsfaktorer. Yttermera har man menat att RHP-partier gagnas av lågt EU-stöd och höga nivåer av brottslighet inom den politiska enheten. Valdeltagande samt tidigare framgångar för RHP-partier inom den politiska enheten har även ansets ha en inverkan på den potentiella väljarmobiliseringen.</p><p>De oberoende variablerna vilka ingår i undersökningen utgörs av medelinkomst, andel högutbildade, arbetslöshet, brottslighet, andel utrikesfödda invandrare, valdeltagande, tidigare valresultat för Ny demokrati samt andel nejröster i EMU-omröstningen.</p><p>Undersökningen studerar sambandet mellan beroende och oberoende variabler genom linjär OLS multipel regressionsanalys där Sveriges 290 kommuner utgör observationsenheter. Datamaterialet för de olika variablerna är hämtad från statliga myndigheter såsom Statistiska centralbyrån, Brottsförebyggande rådet, Valmyndigheten och Arbetsförmedlingen.</p><p>Undersökningen visar att medelinkomst, andel högutbildade och nivå av brottslighet har ett signifikant samband med Sverigedemokraternas valresultat inom kommunerna, med förväntad korrelationsriktning. Även andel utrikesfödda invandrare uppvisar ett signifikant samband, dock med en oväntad negativ korrelationsriktning. Däremot utgör valdeltagande och Ny demokratis valresultat inga signifikanta samband. Yttermera uppvisa andel nej i EMU-omröstningen ett signifikant samband. Emellertid anses detta vara ett skensamband vilket fångat upp andra faktorer vilka ej ingått i undersökningen.</p>

<p>Den här uppsatsen hade som syfte att undersöka sambandet mellan Sverigedemokraternas valresultat i kommunvalet 2006 och ett antal relevanta variabler utvalda i dialog med tidigare forskning och teoribildning angående väljarmobilisering för radikala högerpopulistiska partier (RHP). Sverigedemokraterna är landets största och mest inflytelserika RHP-parti och bygger sin politik framförallt kring en populistisk anti-etablissemangskritik samt en främlingsfientlighet grundad i den etno-pluralistiska doktrinen.</p><p>Det finns många olika teorier angående väljarmobilisering för RHP-partier. Man har bl.a. menat att lågutbildade okvalificerade individer med små ekonomiska medel är mer benägna att rösta på RHP-partier än högutbildade och förhållandevis välbärgade individer. Arbetslöshet och nivå av invandring har därutöver lyfts fram som betydande förklaringsfaktorer. Yttermera har man menat att RHP-partier gagnas av lågt EU-stöd och höga nivåer av brottslighet inom den politiska enheten. Valdeltagande samt tidigare framgångar för RHP-partier inom den politiska enheten har även ansets ha en inverkan på den potentiella väljarmobiliseringen.</p><p>De oberoende variablerna vilka ingår i undersökningen utgörs av medelinkomst, andel högutbildade, arbetslöshet, brottslighet, andel utrikesfödda invandrare, valdeltagande, tidigare valresultat för Ny demokrati samt andel nejröster i EMU-omröstningen.</p><p>Undersökningen studerar sambandet mellan beroende och oberoende variabler genom linjär OLS multipel regressionsanalys där Sveriges 290 kommuner utgör observationsenheter. Datamaterialet för de olika variablerna är hämtad från statliga myndigheter såsom Statistiska centralbyrån, Brottsförebyggande rådet, Valmyndigheten och Arbetsförmedlingen.</p><p>Undersökningen visar att medelinkomst, andel högutbildade och nivå av brottslighet har ett signifikant samband med Sverigedemokraternas valresultat inom kommunerna, med förväntad korrelationsriktning. Även andel utrikesfödda invandrare uppvisar ett signifikant samband, dock med en oväntad negativ korrelationsriktning. Däremot utgör valdeltagande och Ny demokratis valresultat inga signifikanta samband. Yttermera uppvisa andel nej i EMU-omröstningen ett signifikant samband. Emellertid anses detta vara ett skensamband vilket fångat upp andra faktorer vilka ej ingått i undersökningen.</p>

Thesis (Ph.D. (Electrical Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.