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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2006. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 93-108).

Rho GTPases are critical regulators of actin cytoskeletal dynamics. The three most well characterized Rho GTPases, Rac1, RhoA and Cdc42 share a common inhibitor, RhoGDI. It is only recently becoming clear how upstream signals cause the selective release of individual Rho GTPases from RhoGDI. For example, our laboratory showed that diacylglycerol kinase zeta (DGKz), which converts diacylglycerol (DAG) to phosphatidic acid (PA), activates PAK1-mediated RhoGDI phosphorylation on Ser-101/174, causing selective Rac1 release and activation. Phosphorylation of RhoGDI on Ser-34 by PKCa has recently been demonstrated to selectively release RhoA, promoting RhoA activation. Here, I show DGKz is required for optimal RhoA activation and RhoGDI Ser-34 phosphorylation. Both were substantially reduced in DGKz-null fibroblasts and occurred independently of DGKz activity, but required a function DGKz PDZ-binding motif. In contrast, Rac1 activation required DGKz-derived PA, but not PDZ-interactions, indicating DGKz regulates these Rho GTPases by two distinct regulatory complexes. Interestingly, RhoA bound directly to the DGKz C1A domain, the same region known to bind Rac1. By direct interactions with RhoA and PKCa, DGKz was required for the efficient co-precipitation of these proteins, suggesting it is important to assemble a signalling complex that functions as a RhoA-specific RhoGDI dissociation complex. Consequently, cells lacking DGKz exhibited decreased RhoA signalling downstream and disrupted stress fibers. Moreover, DGKz loss resulted in decreased stress fiber formation following the expression of a constitutively active RhoA mutant, suggesting it is also important for RhoA function following activation. This is consistent with the ability of DGKz to bind both active and inactive RhoA conformations. Collectively, these findings suggest DGKz is central to two distinct Rho GTPase activation complexes, each having different requirements for DGKz activity and PDZ interactions, and might regulate the balance of Rac1 and RhoA activity during dynamic changes to the actin cytoskeleton.

Rho GTPases are critical regulators of actin cytoskeletal dynamics. The three most well characterized Rho GTPases, Rac1, RhoA and Cdc42 share a common inhibitor, RhoGDI. It is only recently becoming clear how upstream signals cause the selective release of individual Rho GTPases from RhoGDI. For example, our laboratory showed that diacylglycerol kinase zeta (DGKz), which converts diacylglycerol (DAG) to phosphatidic acid (PA), activates PAK1-mediated RhoGDI phosphorylation on Ser-101/174, causing selective Rac1 release and activation. Phosphorylation of RhoGDI on Ser-34 by PKCa has recently been demonstrated to selectively release RhoA, promoting RhoA activation. Here, I show DGKz is required for optimal RhoA activation and RhoGDI Ser-34 phosphorylation. Both were substantially reduced in DGKz-null fibroblasts and occurred independently of DGKz activity, but required a function DGKz PDZ-binding motif. In contrast, Rac1 activation required DGKz-derived PA, but not PDZ-interactions, indicating DGKz regulates these Rho GTPases by two distinct regulatory complexes. Interestingly, RhoA bound directly to the DGKz C1A domain, the same region known to bind Rac1. By direct interactions with RhoA and PKCa, DGKz was required for the efficient co-precipitation of these proteins, suggesting it is important to assemble a signalling complex that functions as a RhoA-specific RhoGDI dissociation complex. Consequently, cells lacking DGKz exhibited decreased RhoA signalling downstream and disrupted stress fibers. Moreover, DGKz loss resulted in decreased stress fiber formation following the expression of a constitutively active RhoA mutant, suggesting it is also important for RhoA function following activation. This is consistent with the ability of DGKz to bind both active and inactive RhoA conformations. Collectively, these findings suggest DGKz is central to two distinct Rho GTPase activation complexes, each having different requirements for DGKz activity and PDZ interactions, and might regulate the balance of Rac1 and RhoA activity during dynamic changes to the actin cytoskeleton.

Rho GTPases are critical regulators of actin cytoskeletal dynamics. The three most well characterized Rho GTPases, Rac1, RhoA and Cdc42 share a common inhibitor, RhoGDI. It is only recently becoming clear how upstream signals cause the selective release of individual Rho GTPases from RhoGDI. For example, our laboratory showed that diacylglycerol kinase zeta (DGKz), which converts diacylglycerol (DAG) to phosphatidic acid (PA), activates PAK1-mediated RhoGDI phosphorylation on Ser-101/174, causing selective Rac1 release and activation. Phosphorylation of RhoGDI on Ser-34 by PKCa has recently been demonstrated to selectively release RhoA, promoting RhoA activation. Here, I show DGKz is required for optimal RhoA activation and RhoGDI Ser-34 phosphorylation. Both were substantially reduced in DGKz-null fibroblasts and occurred independently of DGKz activity, but required a function DGKz PDZ-binding motif. In contrast, Rac1 activation required DGKz-derived PA, but not PDZ-interactions, indicating DGKz regulates these Rho GTPases by two distinct regulatory complexes. Interestingly, RhoA bound directly to the DGKz C1A domain, the same region known to bind Rac1. By direct interactions with RhoA and PKCa, DGKz was required for the efficient co-precipitation of these proteins, suggesting it is important to assemble a signalling complex that functions as a RhoA-specific RhoGDI dissociation complex. Consequently, cells lacking DGKz exhibited decreased RhoA signalling downstream and disrupted stress fibers. Moreover, DGKz loss resulted in decreased stress fiber formation following the expression of a constitutively active RhoA mutant, suggesting it is also important for RhoA function following activation. This is consistent with the ability of DGKz to bind both active and inactive RhoA conformations. Collectively, these findings suggest DGKz is central to two distinct Rho GTPase activation complexes, each having different requirements for DGKz activity and PDZ interactions, and might regulate the balance of Rac1 and RhoA activity during dynamic changes to the actin cytoskeleton.

Rho GTPases are critical regulators of actin cytoskeletal dynamics. The three most well characterized Rho GTPases, Rac1, RhoA and Cdc42 share a common inhibitor, RhoGDI. It is only recently becoming clear how upstream signals cause the selective release of individual Rho GTPases from RhoGDI. For example, our laboratory showed that diacylglycerol kinase zeta (DGKz), which converts diacylglycerol (DAG) to phosphatidic acid (PA), activates PAK1-mediated RhoGDI phosphorylation on Ser-101/174, causing selective Rac1 release and activation. Phosphorylation of RhoGDI on Ser-34 by PKCa has recently been demonstrated to selectively release RhoA, promoting RhoA activation. Here, I show DGKz is required for optimal RhoA activation and RhoGDI Ser-34 phosphorylation. Both were substantially reduced in DGKz-null fibroblasts and occurred independently of DGKz activity, but required a function DGKz PDZ-binding motif. In contrast, Rac1 activation required DGKz-derived PA, but not PDZ-interactions, indicating DGKz regulates these Rho GTPases by two distinct regulatory complexes. Interestingly, RhoA bound directly to the DGKz C1A domain, the same region known to bind Rac1. By direct interactions with RhoA and PKCa, DGKz was required for the efficient co-precipitation of these proteins, suggesting it is important to assemble a signalling complex that functions as a RhoA-specific RhoGDI dissociation complex. Consequently, cells lacking DGKz exhibited decreased RhoA signalling downstream and disrupted stress fibers. Moreover, DGKz loss resulted in decreased stress fiber formation following the expression of a constitutively active RhoA mutant, suggesting it is also important for RhoA function following activation. This is consistent with the ability of DGKz to bind both active and inactive RhoA conformations. Collectively, these findings suggest DGKz is central to two distinct Rho GTPase activation complexes, each having different requirements for DGKz activity and PDZ interactions, and might regulate the balance of Rac1 and RhoA activity during dynamic changes to the actin cytoskeleton.

Cell migration is required for a number of physiological processes and is implicated in pathologies such as tumor metastasis. Cell motility is dependent upon dynamic actin reorganization, and is regulated by the Rho family of small GTPases. Rho GTPases are molecular switches that cycle between their active and inactive conformations. The best-studied members of this family are Rac1, RhoA, and Cdc42. Each is responsible for the formation of specific actin structures. Diacylglycerol kinases (DGKs) act at the membrane to convert diacylglycerol (DAG) and phosphatidic acid (PA), maintaining the balance of these two lipid second messengers. Previous studies from our lab have demonstrated that the ζ isoform of DGK facilitates the release of Rac1 and RhoA from their inhibitor, RhoGDI. Here we studied a closely related isoform, DGKι, using mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFS) in which the gene for DGKι had been deleted. Aberrations in cell morphology, spreading, and migration were identified in DGKι-null MEFs. We showed that the activity of Rac1 and RhoC, but not RhoA, was impaired in the absence of DGKι, yet only RhoC protein levels were affected. Reduced activation of these Rho GTPases was accompanied by defects in Rac1- and RhoC- related actin structures. These data demonstrate that DGKι, in addition to DGKζ, contributes to the regulation of GTPase activation and remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton.

<p>The two lipid kinases, diacylglycerol kinase (DGK) and phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase (PIP5K), are vital players of the phosphatidylinositol cycle. DGK regulates the intracellular balance between two important lipid signaling molecules, diacylglycerol and phosphatidic acid. PIP5K produces another key signal messenger, phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate. We studied several fundamental aspects of DGK and PIP5K properties. We investigated the topology of the hydrophobic segment of FLAG-tagged DGK epsilon, and showed that a single amino acid mutation P32A caused the hydrophobic segment to favor a transmembrane orientation. We demonstrated that DGKε is localized in both the plasma membrane and endoplasmic reticulum. Our work helped to better elucidate the substrate specificity of DGKε and PIP5K isoforms, and it lead us to discover the motif that is common for several enzymes that exhibit specificity for substrates containing polyunsaturated fatty acids. We studied the organ distribution of murine DGK isoforms, and also expanded our knowledge of DGK expression in diabetic animals, showing that the expression profiles of several DGK isoforms are altered in adipocytes isolated from diabetic mice. Moreover, DGK expression profiles change dramatically during adipocyte differentiation. Taken together, our findings contribute to the growing knowledge about two enzymes, DGK and PIP5K, by providing the fundamental information about the structural and functional properties of these lipid kinases. Both PIP5K and DGK enzymes have a strong potential for use as drug targets. Although at present their clinical importance has not been completely assessed, we believe that their significance as drug targets will be recognized in the nearest future. <strong></strong></p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

<p> An area of current research interest involves the diacylglycerol kinase (DGK) family. Diacylglycerol kinases (DGKs) are a group of enzymes that phosphorylate diacylglycerol (DAG), a second messenger involved in cell signaling. The product of this reaction, phosphatidic acid (PA), also has signaling roles. An interesting isoform is DGKε, that although it has no identifiable regulatory domains other than the C1 domains. In addition, the catalytic domain is homologous to that of other DGK isoforms; however, DGKε exhibits an unusual specificity toward acyl chains of DAG, selectively phosphorylating an arachidonoyl-DAG substituted at the sn-2 position. Recently, researchers have identified an N-terminal hydrophobic domain of about 19 amino-acids in human DGKε. The present study attempted to identify the function of the N-terminal putative transmembrane domain of human DGKε and its relationship to the activity and substrate specificity of this enzyme by designing a truncated form of DGKε lacking the putative transmembrane domain.</p> <p> We have shown that the putative transmembrane domain of DGKε is not required for enzyme activity or for substrate specificity. In a mixed micellar assay the enzyme-catalyzed reaction followed surface dilution kinetics with respect to diacylglycerol and followed Michaelis-Menten kinetics with respect to ATP. The results show that the truncated form of the enzyme maintains substrate specificity for lipids with an arachidonoyl moiety present at the sn-2 position. The truncation increased the catalytic rate constant for all three substrates used in this study. It appears unlikely that the putative transmembrane domain, a segment unique to DGKε, has no functional role. It is possible that the hydrophobic segment may have a role in enzyme regulation by associating the enzyme in oligomers that are inactive in quiescent cells and get activated upon dissociation into monomers by increased levels of DAG in the membrane. We have shown that the presence of higher molecular species in the gel is not dependent on the presence or absence of the putative transmembrane domain. The only difference between the full-length and truncated enzyme is the monomer to dimer ratio. It appears likely that another segment of DGKε besides the putative transmembrane domain may be involved in oligomerization and that oligomerization is either transient or very weak. The absence of the hydrophobic domain of DGKε seems to cause no drastic changes either in the activity, the substrate specificity, or the state of oligomerization of the enzyme.</p> <p> Therefore, the next question is whether the hydrophobic domain of DGKε inserts itself in the membrane as a transmembrane helix or it only helps associate the enzyme to the surface of the membrane. We studied the topology of theN-terminal domain of DGKε in intact and permeabilized cells by indirect immunofluorescent microscopy. The results show that the N-terminal domain of the protein is present in the cytosol. The data supports a model in which the hydrophobic domain of DGKε forms a hydrophobic loop that attaches to the inner layer of the plasma membrane or that the hydrophobic domain attaches to the inner leaflet through its nonpolar surface of a horizontal helix. The first hypothesis is supported by the presence of a Pro residue in the middle of the hydrophobic domain. This Pro would introduce a kink in the helix creating a loop, but the absence of one or more glycine residues proximal to proline may hinder the formation of the loop. The second hypothesis is sustained by the presence of a polar surface on one side of the helical wheel. This orientation indicates the presence of a slightly horizontal helix attached to the surface of the inner layer of the plasma membrane.</p> <p> Regardless of the orientation of the helix, the weak association of the enzyme with the membrane is supported by previous data on the ease of extractability of the enzyme with high salts and on the Triton X-114 phase partitioning.</p> / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

La thèse est consacrée à l'étude de la signalisation lipidique comme un mécanisme universel de médiation des réponses cellulaires à phytohormones et élicitors jouant ainsi un rôle clé dans la réorganisation de métabolisme cellulaire pendant l'adaptation de la plante aux changements environnementaux.Phospholipase D (PLD) et son produit acide phosphatidic (PA) ont étés impliqués au cascades de signalisation induites par l’acide salicylique (SA) dans les cellules de garde de Arabidopsis thaliana. On a trouvé une activation de PLD et la production de PA dans les feuilles des plantes après le traitement par SA. En utilisant le marquage radioactif des phospholipides, l'analyse histochimique, les inhibiteurs de la signalisation lipidique et des lignées transgénique des plantes, nous avons montré la participation de la PLD et la NADPH-oxidase RbohD à la formation du superoxyde dans les tissues d’Arabidopsis et à la fermeture des stomates induite par SA.La cooperation entre le SA et l’acide abscisic (ABA) dans la réorganisation de transcriptome induite par ces hormones a été examinée dans la culture de la suspension cellulaire. Tant SA que l'ABA ont inhibé l'activité basale in vivo de phospholipase C dépendante de phosphatidylinositol (PI-PLC), tandis que SA (mais pas ABA) a incité aussi le phosphorylation de phosphatidylinositols. Les transcriptomes de cellules après le traitement par SA ou ABA ont été comparé à ceux obtenus aprés le traitement avec U73122 ou wortmannin. Nous avons trouvé des groupes de gènes, pour qui l'effet d'ABA et des inhibiteurs était semblable; des gènes dependants du SA via l'équilibre des phosphoinositides et des gènes dependants du SA via l’activité de PLD. Basé sur l'analyse bioinformatique de toutes les groupes de gènes choisis, nous proposons le règlement du niveaux des phosphoinositides comme un facteur important dans la regulation du transcriptome basal et également dans les changements du profile transcriptomique induits par l'effet du SA ou d'ABA.L'effet du peptide bactérien flg22 sur l’équilibre des phospholipides a été détecté tant dans des cellules de suspension que dans des plantules. Flg22 a induit l'accumulation de PA par l'activation de PI-PLC couplée a la diacylglycerolkinase 5 (DGK5), et egalement la diminution de niveau de phosphatidylinositol-4,5-biphosphate, qui est un substrat de PI-PLC. L'analyse des effects des inhibiteurs a révélé la participation des DGK et PI-PLC dans la production des espèces d'oxygène réactive (ROS) induite par flg22. La production du PA a été placée dans la cascade de la signalisation en aval de la reconnaissance du flg22 par le complexe de récepteur FLS2-BAK1, mais aprés la formation du ROS par NADPH-oxydase RbohD. Le rôle de DGK5 a été caractérisé dans la regulation du transcriptome; dans l’accumulation du callose induite par flg22 dans l’apoplast et dans la résistance au pathogène biotrophique Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000. Finalement, nous avons proposé un nouveau modèle de perception du flagellin qui inclut PI-PLC et DGK5.Le rôle de phosphoinositides dans les cascades de la signalisation d’auxin et cytokinin a été révélé dans la morphogenesis racinaire dans le mutant d'Arabidopsis pi4kb1b2 (muté dans deux isoformes de PI4K) et pi4kb1b2sid2 (contient la mutation supplémentaire de l'enzyme de biosynthèse du SA, permettant de séparer les effets du mutation en PI4K qui dependent du SA). Nous avons analysé l'anatomie de la meristem des racines, l'allongement de cellules corticales, la réponse gravitropic, les réponses aux hormones exogènes et nous avons montré la connexion entre l'activité PI4K avec les effets d’auxin et de cytokinin pendant le morphogenesis racinaire et gravitropism. Nos résultats élargissent la connaissance de la nature de la signalisation phytohormonale dans les plantes et peuvent être utilisés comme une base pour augmenter la résistance de céréales agricolement importantes aux contraintes de l’environnement / Thesis is devoted to the investigation of lipid signaling processes as a universal mechanism mediating cellular responses to phytohormones and elicitors thus playing a key role in cell metabolism remodeling during plant adaptation to environmental changes. Phospholipase D (PLD) and its product phosphatidic acid (PA) were found to be involved to the SA-induced signaling cascades in Arabidopsis thaliana guard cells. Using radioactive labeling of phospholipids we found an activation of PLD and production of PA in leaves of 4-week old plants after salicylic acid (SA) treatment. Using histochemical assay, inhibitor assay and transgenic lines knock-out by different isoforms of NADPH-oxidases, we showed the involvement of PLD and NADPH-oxidase RbohD to PA-mediated superoxide formation in Arabidopsis tissues infiltrated by SA and SA-induced stomatal closure. SA- crosstalk with abscisic acid (ABA) in transcriptome remodeling induced by these hormones was investigated in suspension cell culture. Both SA and ABA inhibited basal activity of phosphatidylinositol dependent phospholipase C (PI-PLC) in vivo, while SA (but not ABA) also induced the phosphorylation of phosphatidylinositols. Total transcriptomes of suspension cells after SA or ABA treatment were compared to those obtained from suspension cells treated with U73122 (PI-PLC inhibitor) or wortmannin (inhibitor of phosphatidylinositol-4-kinases (PI4K) that provide the substrate for PI-PLC catalyzed reactions). We found a specific gene clusters, for those the effect of ABA and inhibitors was similar; SA-dependent genes, regulated via the balance of phosphoinositides, and SA-dependent genes, regulated via PLD-mediated pathway. Based on the bioinformatic analysis of the promoters of all selected gene sets, we claim a phosphoinositides level regulation to be an important factor mediating basal cell transcriptome and expression changes induced by SA and ABA.The effect of bacterial peptide flg22 on phospholipid turnover was detected in both suspension cells and seedlings. Flg22 induced accumulation of PA by the activation of PI-PLC coupled with diacylglycerolkinase (DGK) and a corresponding parallel increase of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-biphosphate content, that is a substrate of PI-PLC. Inhibitor analysis revealed the involvement of Ca2+ ions in lipid signaling enzymes reaction to flagellin treatment. We showed the role of DGK and PI-PLC in production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced by flg22. PA-production was placed in signaling cascade downstream of flagellin recognition by FLS2-BAK1 receptor complex receptor, but upstream or ROS formation by NADPH-oxidase RbohD. DGK5 was found to be the main source of the detected PA. The role of DGK5 was characterized in basal transcriptome regulation and its flagellin-induced remodeling; in flg22-induced callose accumulation in apoplast and resistance to biotrophic pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000. We proposed a new model of flagellin perception that includes PI-PLC and DGK5. Role of phosphoinositides in auxin and cytokinin signaling cascades was revealed studying root morphogenesis in Arabidopsis mutant pi4kb1b2 deficient for two PI4K genes, and pi4kb1b2sid2 that had additional mutation it key enzyme of SA biosynthesis, thus allowing us to separate SA-dependent and independent effects of the PI4K deficiency. pi4kb1b2 mutant plants exhibit the dwarf phenotype both in leaf and root parts, while pi4kb1b2sid2 show the normal rosette growth compared to WT, but still shorter roots. We analyzed root meristem anatomy, cortical cells elongation, gravitropic response, responses to exogenic hormones and firstly showed the connection of PI4K activity with auxin and cytokinin effects during root morphogenesis and gravitropism. Our results broaden the knowledge about the nature of plant phytohormonal signaling and can be used as a basis for increasing the resistance of agriculturally important crop plants to environmental stresses