Emergency on-call duties have been highlighted as a key stress factor in newly qualified physiotherapists whose job performance may be affected. The concept of stress relating to on-call work, the general lack of interest or confidence in the respiratory on-call field, and subsequent difficulties with recruitment and retention, pose a difficult problem for managers of services responsible for the maintenance of a competent workforce and a high standard of service provision. Differences in novice and expert physiotherapists’ patient management and clinical reasoning strategies have been previously examined in orthopaedic, neurology, domiciliary and cardiorespiratory fields. However, no such investigations have been undertaken in the field of emergency on-call. The purpose of this study was to determine if differences existed between novice and expert physiotherapists who had by definition differing levels of context-related experience within the emergency on-call environment. This study also aimed to consider what factors may influence their physiotherapy intervention for an acute cardiorespiratory patient. A purpose-designed vignette-based postal questionnaire was administered to 26 emergency on-call providers in New Zealand. The questionnaire sought demographic data, investigated participants’ attitudes towards emergency on-call service provision and presented a vignette-based clinical scenario which asked questions throughout an evolving clinical case scenario. Analysis was performed using the computer software package for social sciences, SPSS for Windows (version 14), results were analysed using descriptive statistics, and significance testing was performed using non-parametric methods. A good response rate was achieved (78.8%; n = 56). Statistically significant differences between novices and experts were determined in scores for confidence, stress, and support required, also in the factors affecting stress levels. Novices are less confident (p = < .0001), more stressed (p = < .001) and require more support than experts (p = < .001). Factors which influenced both novice, and to a lesser extent, expert stress levels when working as emergency on-call physiotherapists, were established. A relationship was determined between confidence and level of support required (r = -.65; p = < .001); confidence and amount of stress felt (r = -.58; p = < .001); and support required and stress felt (r = .47; p = < .001). Some differences were demonstrated between novice and expert physiotherapists in their answers to a clinical case scenario. Although these were not statistically significant, a trend was noted which may reflect the different clinical reasoning strategies of these physiotherapists. There is a need for novices to gain the type of experience which includes independent problem solving and guided reflection; the use of vignette-based case studies may be one method which could be further exploited. The profession is responsible for the provision of better ways to meet the needs of our future emergency on-call workforce. If this is not achieved, other professional groups will be required to fill the gaps and physiotherapy; particularly cardiorespiratory physiotherapy will lose out.

The first aim of this study was to identify important aspects of mathematical thinking, and to investigate the relationships between the different aspects of mathematical thinking and mathematics achievement. The second aim was to examine possible gender and school location (urban, suburban, and rural) differences related to aspects of mathematical thinking and mathematics achievement. Two assessments were developed that were suitable for students in the Year 11 scientific stream in Jordan. One test was for aspects of mathematical thinking and the other for mathematics achievement, the latter being consistent with typical school achievement tests for these students in Jordan. The researcher chose and developed items to test mathematical thinking and mathematics achievement from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), the internet, research literature, specialist books in mathematics and his own experience. The data were collected in the 2003-2004 academic year from over 500 Year 11 scientific stream students (both male and female) at 20 randomly selected schools from six directorates in the Irbid Governorate, Jordan. In addition, 13 teachers were individually interviewed, and four groups of students were interviewed in focus groups to obtain information about their opinions and about different methods of thinking in mathematics. The teacher interviews were used to identify consistencies and inconsistencies between the test results and the respondents’ opinions of difficulty and importance. In addition, information was obtained about the classroom time teachers devoted to the different aspects of mathematical thinking and the teaching strategies they employed. Six aspects of mathematical thinking were identified by the study: Generalization, Induction, Deduction, Use of Symbols, Logical thinking and Mathematical proof. Mathematical proof was also the most difficult aspect, while Logical thinking was the least difficult. Female students had significantly higher mean scores than males on three of the six aspects of mathematical thinking and on the total test scores. Students attending suburban schools had significantly higher mean scores than students at urban and rural schools on four aspects, and on the total scores. Using multiple regression analysis, all six aspects were found to be important for mathematics achievement. Mathematical proof and Generalization were the most important aspects, Use of symbols and Logical thinking were next in importance, and Deduction and Induction were the least important aspects. Approximately 70 per cent of the variance in mathematics achievement was explained by the six aspects of mathematical thinking, gender, and school location. There was a high level of consistency between teacher opinions of the relative importance of aspects of mathematical thinking and the test results. However, there were some nconsistencies between the teacher opinions and test results with respect to relative difficulty levels of the six aspects. By clarifying the importance for mathematics achievement of the six aspects of mathematical thinking identified, this study has relevance for the teaching of mathematics to Year 11, scientific stream students in Jordan. / PhD Doctorate

The primary aim of this thesis was to investigate the gender-specific responses to supramaximal cycling and to examine the changes in anaerobic and aerobic metabolism that occur in response to high-intensity interval training (HIT). All subjects in the present experiments were untrained, healthy young adults aged between 18 and 35 yr. Cycle ergometry was used for all experimental test procedures and training programs. The accumulated oxygen (AO2) deficit was used to quantify the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) via anaerobic metabolism during supramaximal cycling. In addition, pulmonary oxygen uptake measured at the onset of exercise was described using mathematical modeling to determine the rate response of the aerobic energy system during exercise. The purpose of experiment one was to examine the test-retest reliability of the maximal accumulated oxygen deficit (MAOD) measured at 110% and 120% of peak oxygen uptake for cycling in seven untrained male and seven untrained female subjects. After one familiarization trial, all subjects performed two MAOD tests at a power output corresponding to 110% and two tests at 120% of peak oxygen uptake in random order. MAOD was calculated for each subject as the difference between the estimated AO2 demand and the AO2 uptake measured during the exercise bout. The mean±standard error time to exhaustion (TE) for the group was not significantly different between trial one (226±13 s) and trial two (223±14 s) of the 110% test. Likewise, the difference in the TE between trial one (158±11 s) and trial two (159±10 s) was not significant for the 120% test. The intra-class correlation coefficients for the TE were 0.95 for the 110% test and 0.98 for the 120% test. The mean MAOD value obtained in trial one (2.62±0.17 L) was not significantly different from the mean value obtained in trial two (2.54±0.19 L) for the 110% test. Additionally, the mean values for the two trials did not differ significantly for MAOD (2.64±0.21 L for trial one and 2.63±0.19 L for trial two) in the 120% test. The intra-class correlation coefficients for MAOD were 0.95 for the 110% test and 0.97 for the 120% test. All intra-class correlation coefficients were significant at p < 0.001. When conducted under standardized conditions, the determination of MAOD for cycling was highly repeatable at both 110% and 120% of peak oxygen uptake in untrained male and female subjects. The results observed in experiment one suggest that the MAOD may be used to compare the anaerobic capacity (AC) of men and women and to examine changes in the contribution of the anaerobic energy systems before and after training. Experiment two examined the gender-specific differences in MAOD before and after 4 and 8 wk of HIT. Untrained men (n=7) and women (n=7) cycled at 120% of pre-training peak oxygen uptake to exhaustion (MAOD test) pre-, mid-, and post-training. A post-training timed test was also completed at the MAOD test power output, but this test was stopped at the TE achieved during the pre-training MAOD test. The 14.3±5.2% increase in MAOD observed in males after 4 wk of training was not different from the 14.0±3.0% increase seen in females (p > 0.05). MAOD increased by a further 6.6±1.9% in males and this change was not different from the additional 5.1±2.3% increase observed in females after the final 4 wk of training. Peak oxygen uptake measured during incremental cycling increased significantly (p < 0.01) in male but not in female subjects after 8 wk of training. Moreover, the AO2 uptake was higher in men during the post-training timed test compared to the pre-training MAOD test (p < 0.01). In contrast, the AO2 uptake was unchanged from pre- to post-training in female subjects. The increase in MAOD with training was not different between men and women suggesting an enhanced ability to produce ATP anaerobically in both groups. However, the increase in peak oxygen uptake and AO2 uptake obtained in male subjects following training indicates improved oxidative metabolism in men but not in women. It was concluded that there are basic gender differences that may predispose males and females to specific metabolic adaptations following an 8-wk period of HIT. Increases in AO2 uptake during supramaximal cycling demonstrated in men after training led to the hypothesis that peak oxygen uptake kinetics are speeded in male subjects with short-term HIT. It was suggested that training does not improve peak oxygen uptake kinetics in women as no change in AO2 uptake was found after 8 wk of HIT in female subjects. The purpose of experiment three was to examine peak oxygen uptake kinetics before and after 8 wk of HIT in six men and six women during cycling at 50% (50% test) and 110% (110% test) of pre-training peak oxygen uptake. A single-term exponential equation was used to model the peak oxygen uptake response (after phase I) during the 50% and 110% tests pre- and post-training. In addition, phase II and III of the peak oxygen uptake response during the 110% tests were examined using a two-term equation. The end of the phase I peak oxygen uptake response was identified visually and omitted from the modeling process. The duration of phase I determined during all experimental tests was not different between men and women and did not change with training in either group. Before training, men obtained a phase II peak oxygen uptake time constant (t2) of 29.0±3.3 s during the 50% test which was not different to the t2 of 28.8±2.2 s attained by women. In addition, the t2 determined during the 50% test was unchanged after 8 wk of HIT in both groups. The peak oxygen uptake kinetics examined during the 110% tests before training were well described by a single-term model in all male and female subjects. The t2 determined before training for the 110% test was significantly faster in men than in women. Furthermore, peak oxygen uptake was unchanged in female subjects and the t2 remained unaltered with 8 wk HIT (pre 45.5±2.2; post 44.8±2.3 s). In contrast, male subjects achieved a significantly higher peak oxygen uptake after training and the t2 determined for men during the 110% test was faster after training (36.4±1.6 s) than before training (40.1± 1.9 s). Improved model fits were obtained with the two-term equation compared to the single-term equation in two of the six male subjects during the 110% test post-training. It was found that the onset of the peak oxygen uptake slow component occurred at a mean time of 63.5±2.5 s and the t2 was reduced to 18.4±1.7 s. Using a Wilcoxon Signed Ranks z-test, the t2 described by the single-term equation in the remaining four subjects was determined to be significantly faster after training than before training, thus confirming the results obtained from the original group (n=6) of male subjects. End exercise heart rate (HREE) values obtained during the 50% and 110% tests were not different between men and women. During the 50% test, HREE values were unchanged, whereas HREE was significantly decreased during the 110% test after training in both groups. These data show that HIT might improve oxidative metabolism in men but not in women as reflected by a greater peak oxygen uptake and faster peak oxygen uptake kinetics during supramaximal work rates. We further suggest that the faster peak oxygen uptake kinetics demonstrated in men after training are probably not due to an improvement in cardiac function. Finally, the augmentation of oxidative metabolism during exercise after HIT in men might be dependent on the intensity of the exercise bout at which the peak oxygen uptake response is examined. The findings presented in this thesis suggest that MAOD is a reliable measure in both male and female subjects and can be used to monitor changes in anaerobic ATP production during supramaximal cycling. Moreover, these data suggest that 4 and 8 wk of HIT produce similar changes in anaerobic ATP generation in men and women. Finally, 8 wk of HIT results in the increase of peak oxygen uptake and AO2 uptake as well as the speeding of peak oxygen uptake kinetics during supramaximal cycling in male subjects. There was no evidence to suggest that oxidative metabolism was improved in women after short-term HIT. In conclusion, improvement in supramaximal exercise performances should be examined specifically for changes in the anaerobic and aerobic contributions to energy production. In addition, it is suggested that gender should be of primary consideration when designing exercise-training programs where improvement in both anaerobic and aerobic metabolism is required.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / New scoring and test construction methods for emotional intelligence (EI) are suggested as alternatives for current practice, where most tests are scored by group judgment and are in ratings-based format. Both the ratings-based format and the proportion-based scores resulting from group judgments may act as method effects, obscuring relationships between EI tests, and between EI and intelligence. In addition, scoring based on standards rather than group judgments add clarity to the meaning of test scores. For these reasons, two new measures of emotional intelligence (EI) are constructed: (1) the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU); and (2) the Situational Test of Emotion Management (STEM). Following test construction, validity evidence is collected from four multi-variate studies. The STEU’s items and a standards-based scoring system are developed according to empirically derived appraisal theory concerning the structure of emotion [Roseman, 2001]. The STEM is developed as a Situational Judgment Test (SJT) with situations representing sadness, fear and anger in work life and personal life settings. Two qualitative studies form the basis for the STEM’s item development: (1) content analysis of responses to semi-structured interviews with 31 psychology undergraduates and 19 community volunteers; and (2) content analysis of free responses to targeted vignettes created from these semi-structured interviews (N = 99). The STEM may be scored according to two expert panels of emotions researchers, psychologists, therapists and life coaches (N = 12 and N = 6). In the first multi-variate study (N = 207 psychology undergraduates), both STEU and STEM scores relate strongly to vocabulary test scores and moderately to Agreeableness but no other dimension from the five-factor model of personality. STEU scores predict psychology grade and an emotionally-oriented thinking style after controlling vocabulary and personality test scores (ΔR2 = .08 and .06 respectively). STEM scores did not predict academic achievement but did predict emotionally-oriented thinking and life satisfaction (ΔR2 = .07 and .05 for emotionally-oriented thinking and .04 for life satisfaction). In the second multi-variate study, STEU scores predict lower levels of state anxiety, and STEM scores predict lower levels of state anxiety, depression, and stress among 149 community volunteers from Sydney, Australia. In the third multi-variate study (N = 181 psychology undergraduates), Strategic EI, fluid intelligence (Gf) and crystallized intelligence (Gc) were each measured with three indicators, allowing these constructs to be assessed at the latent variable level. Nested structural equation models show that Strategic EI and Gc form separate latent factors (Δχ2(1) = 12.44, p < .001). However, these factors relate very strongly (r = .73), indicating that Strategic EI may be a primary mental ability underlying Gc. In this study, STEM scores relate to emotionally-oriented thinking but not loneliness, life satisfaction or state stress, and STEU scores do not relate to any of these. STEM scores are significantly and meaningfully higher for females (d = .80), irrespective of gender differences in verbal ability or personality, or whether expert scores are derived from male or female experts. The fourth multi-variate study (N = 118 psychology undergraduates) distinguishes an EI latent factor (indicated by scores on the STEU, STEM and two emotion recognition ability measures) from a general cognitive ability factor (indicated by three intelligence measures; Δχ2(1) = 10.49, p < .001), although again cognitive ability and EI factors were strongly related (r = .66). Again, STEM scores were significantly higher for females (d = .44) and both STEU and STEM relate to Agreeableness but not to any other dimension from the five-factor model of personality. Taken together, results suggest that: (1) STEU and STEM scores are reasonably reliable and valid tests of EI; (2) EI tests assess slightly different constructs to existing measures of Gc, but more likely form a new primary mental ability within Gc than an entirely separate construct; and (3) the female superiority for EI tests may prove useful for addressing adverse impact in applied settings (e.g., selection for employment, promotion or educational opportunities), particularly given that many current assessment tools result in a male advantage.

The survival of motor neurons is controlled by multiple factors, which regulate different aspects of their physiology. The identification of these factors is important because of their relevance for motor neuron disease. This thesis began with a search for novel growth factors that naturally keep these neurons alive. Members of the TGF-β superfamily, including Mullerian inhibiting substance (MIS) and bone morphogenetic protein 6 (BMP6), were identified as putative survival factors following a cDNA microarray analysis of a mouse model of motor neuron disease. MIS is a gonad-derived hormone with a male bias. It induces the degeneration of the female reproductive tract during development and it was thought to have no physiological function outside of the reproductive system. In this thesis, multiple techniques were used to show that adult motor neurons produce MIS and its receptors. The copy number of MIS mRNA in motor neurons was comparable with that of the testis, whereas the mRNA of the MIS type II receptor (MISRII) in motor neurons appeared to be the most abundant receptor of the TGF-β superfamily. These results were confirmed using Western blot and immunohistochemistry. Thus, MIS may exert its function through an autocrine or a paracrine mechanism between neighbouring motor neurons. The function of MIS was examined using a culture system and a mouse null mutation of MISRII. The in vitro assays showed strong neurotrophic effects of MIS on embryonic motor neurons with the maximum extent of survival being similar to that achieved by the classical motor neuron survival factor, GDNF. MIS has a male bias in utero raising the issue of whether motor neurons are sexually dimorphic. Consistent with this, the number of motor neurons in the lumbar lateral motor column of neonatal male MISRII+/+ mice was 13 % greater than in female mice (P = 0.01). The nuclei of male motor neurons were approximately 20 % larger than their female counterparts (P = 0.000). MISRII-/- male mice had 18 % fewer motor neurons than wild-type males (P = 0.01) and the mean size of their motor neurons was 20 % smaller (P = 0.000). The number and size of motor neurons in the MISRII-/- males was not different to those of MISRII+/+ females. These results implicate MIS as being responsible for neuronal survival as well as producing sexual dimorphism of the limb innervating motor neurons. Since MIS does not appear to be expressed in the embryonic neuromuscular system, it is postulated that MIS is a gonad-derived neurotrophic factor for developing motor neurons. The BMP type II receptor (BMPRII) was the second most abundant receptor of the TGF-β superfamily expressed by motor neurons. One of its ligands, BMP6, was found to have a neurotrophic effect on motor neurons in culture but was slightly less potent than MIS. BMP6 mRNA was detected in nerve, skeletal muscle and spinal cord, but not in motor neurons. BMP6 immunoreactivity was mainly associated with the myelinated Schwann cells and satellite glia that surround motor neurons. In skeletal muscles, immunoreactivity was not detected in muscle fibers, nor the postsynaptic region of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). BMP6 was, however, associated with the interstitial cells of skeletal muscles. Double nerve ligations were used to examine whether Schwann cell-derived BMP6 interacts with motor neurons. Consistent with this, BMP6 was retrogradely transported in motor axons. These observations collectively suggest that BMP6 is a glia-derived regulator of motor neurons. MIS and minority of BMP6 were anterogradely transported towards the NMJ. Their receptors, MISRII and BMPRII, were detected in the postsynaptic portions of the adult NMJ. These observations raised the possibility that MIS and BMP6 may be regulators of the adult NMJ. Since functional redundancy amongst the members of the TGF-β superfamily has been suggested, the function of MIS/BMP6 signaling at the NMJ was therefore examined in mice with muscle-specific deletion of Smad4, a central mediator of TGF-β superfamily pathways. More than 75% of animals lacking Smad4 in muscles died before embryonic day (E) 14 and none survived postnally. This was due to the loss of functional Smad4 in developing cardiac myocytes, which resulted in severe heart defects and early death of embryos. Thus, the function of MIS/BMP6 signaling at the adult NMJ could not be studied. Finally, this thesis briefly examined the phenotypes of mice carrying double null mutations of MISRII and TGF-β2. The animals died at an early stage and showed a more severe phenotype than either of the single null mutants. This suggests that functional redundancy among members of the TGF-β superfamily exists in many organs. In summary, motor neurons require multiple sources of growth factors for their survival. MIS and BMP6 were discovered as novel survival factors for motor neurons in this study. MIS was implicated as a regulator of sexual dimorphism in developing motor neurons, whereas both MIS and BMP6 appear to regulate mature motor neurons, and possibly the NMJ.

This Study examines some cross-cultural differences in conveying good and bad news in Australian English and Vietnamese. Three major aspects are taken into consideration: address forms, modality, and directness-indirectness. Theoretical issues are raised and discussed, and questionnaire data collected and analysed. Chapter I shows why it is important and necessary to study crosscultural differences and sets up the aims of the study. Chapter II deals with address forms in general and the use of address forms in conveying good and bad news in the Australian and Vietnamese cultural contexts in particular..The similarities and differences between the two systems are also discussed. Chapter III dwells on modality and its devices: modals, modality markers, subjunctive mood (in English) and lexico-modal operators for subjunctive mood (in Vietnamese). The use of these devices in communicating good and bad news in the two cultures is discussed in detail. Chapter IV is concerned theoretically with directness-indirectness, and the relationship between indirectness and politeness. How directness and in-directness are actually used to convey good and bad news in Australian and Vietnamese cultures is also analysed. Chapter V concludes the Study and suggests implications for ELT.

<p>Sleep problems are one of the most common health complaints in the population. Furthermore, people often judge good sleep as crucial for everyday well-being and it has been shown that lack of sleep has negative health effects. However, sleep has not been a subject of much sociological study.</p><p>In this study sleep problems are analysed in different ways. First, a cross-sectional analysis is done in order to find out whether sleep problems in the population have increased from 1968 to 2000. Secondly, a longitudinal analysis is done to see how sleep problems pattern from middle-age to old-age. Last, it is analysed whether there are any differences in the sleep patterns from middle-age to old-age for manual workers and non-manuals.</p><p>This study shows that there has been an increase in sleep problems from 1968 to 2000 in the population. However the increase has only affected younger age groups (between the age 19-55), the elderly population is unaffected. The increase is found among both men and women. Longitudinal analyses of a cohort (born 1915-1925) followed from middle-age to old-age (for 34 years) showed that one out of four experienced an onset of sleep problems during the study. This is in line with earlier research stating that insomnia to a large part is age-related. Furthermore, it was found that manual workers had a larger increase of sleep problems across the 34 years than non-manuals, perhaps suggesting an accumulation effect.</p><p>All analyses were separated for gender and women constantly reported more sleep problems than men. This is not surprising since this relation have been found across almost all cultures and times. Nevertheless, in this study no increase of the gender gap was found with advancing age, a relation found in most other studies. However more research is needed to understand the reason behind the gendered nature of sleep problems.</p>

<p>En ökad handel med Kina har inneburit att fler svenskar arbetar och bor där tillfälligt. Det betyder att det finns intresse att undersöka kulturella skillnader för att underlätta anpassningar vid arbete och fritid. Åtta personer med erfarenhet av att arbeta och leva i Kina intervjuades. Resultatet visade på betydande skillnader i kommunikation, tidsuppfattning, organisation, relationer och socialt beteende. Kommunikationssvårigheter fanns både under arbete och vid fritid vilket berodde på språket i sig samt olika kommunikationsstilar. Den hierarkiska organisationen bidrog till att saker tog längre tid, men goda relationerna upplevdes minska tidsåtgången. Socialt beteende skiljde sig till exempel vid bordskick. För att motverka skillnaderna underlättar ett gott tålamod samt en kulturell förståelse och acceptans. Resultatet diskuteras utifrån skillnaderna i de kulturella samhällsvärderingarna.</p>

<p>Flera teorier om självkänsla har gemensamt att självkänsla grundläggs i barndomen och berör individens syn på sig själv och hur omgivningen uppfattar individen. Tidigare studier av pornografiskt material har inriktat sig mot negativa effekter av konsumtion för beteendet. Studiens frågeställningar berörde huruvida det fanns några könsskillnader eller skillnader mellan individer med hög respektive låg självkänsla gällande hur ungdomar påverkas av pornografiskt material. Totalt deltog 131 personer av dessa var 80 kvinnor och 51 män. Män påverkades mer av pornografi än kvinnor Individer med låg självkänsla påverkas mer av pornografi än de med hög självkänsla. Studien visar att det finns en koppling mellan påverkan av pornografiskt material och individens självkänsla.</p>

<p>Två experiment undersökte om en människa och ett djur som far lika illa väcker olika mycket empati. I Experiment 1 fick 108 personer läsa en berättelse där antingen en man, kvinna, hund eller katt farit illa och därefter skatta sin empati. Män hade låg empati för såväl människor som för djur. Kvinnor hade (1) mer empati än män oavsett offer, (2) mer empati för djur än för människor, samt (3) något mer empati för hund än för katt. I Experiment 2 fick 69 kvinnor läsa en berättelse där antingen ett barn eller en hundvalp farit illa. Kvinnorna hade något mer empati för hundvalpen än för barnet. Sammantaget var kvinnorna alltså främsta givare och hundarna främsta mottagare av empati.</p>