Video games are played by more than 1.8 billion people and are a pervasive force in society, but despite decades of research there has been little consensus on their effects. Before we are able to model complex outcomes such as excessive engagement, we must first understand how and why people play video games. This dissertation integrates latent factor models with techniques from machine learning and network analysis to develop a holistic picture of gaming style, motivations, and individual differences. It employs diverse sources of data across several studies and a total of 2,143 participants, combining online questionnaires with qualitative analysis of participant responses and objective information about gaming behaviour from the API of the popular gaming network "Steam", and finds that stress relief is a primary motivation for engaging in the immersive worlds of video games. Previous research has indicated three underlying factors of Immersion, Achievement and Socialising which replicated across three comprehensive studies of 480 adults, 106 adults and children with an Autism Spectrum Condition, and 961 adults and adolescents. Gamers experiencing more stress in their daily lives were more likely to have Immersion rather than Social or Achievement play styles. Achievement-oriented gamers tended to be lower in stress, higher in conscientiousness and emotional stability, and played more than Immersion-focused gamers. A qualitative analysis of 54 gamers' descriptions of why they recently chose to play a game was used to develop the "Reasons for Playing Video Games" items (RPVG), which were administered to independent samples of 243, 299 and 961 gamers. The qgraph R package was used to perform network analyses of the RPVG items and gameplay style factors, employing the machine learning-based adaptive LASSO technique to estimate a partial correlation matrix from a set of variables as a Pairwise Markov Random Field. Gamers higher in Immersion tended to play for escapism, distraction, and fantasy, while social gamers played for excitement, energy, and self-expression. Network analysis and graph theory illustrate the central role of stress relief in the network of Reasons for Playing Video Games and shows that playing when feeling stressed is strongly linked with Immersion.

This thesis develops a new theoretical perspective (i.e., the resource synergy perspective) to explain how women in the workforce may help improve organization performance. Drawing upon this theoretical perspective, I study how women, as an important strategic human resource, can be better utilized with the resource synergy generated between women resources and certain synergy-relevant variables. Among the synergy-relevant variables, this perspective highlights the importance of organization strategy and leadership, because these two variables are developed based on organizational resources and should be contingent on the environmental and situational factors that are partly uncontrollable by an organization. In addition, the roles of organization culture as a type of environmental factor and task characteristics as a situational factor are also considered. To realize the research goals, I conduct two studies at different levels. In study 1, I propose that organizations can take advantage of women resources by increasing the proportion of women in the employees at the macro level. Moreover, I propose that organization strategy, culture, and task characteristic have coordinative and supportive effects on the increase of the proportion of women, leading to the generation of resource synergy. Specifically, I seek to prove that, with the coordination and coherence of these synergy-relevant variables (i.e., customer-oriented strategy), the culture of collectivism, and task complexity, women‘s resources can be better utilized. Thus, the generated synergy can bring greater competitive advantages for organizations and thus lead to higher organization financial performance. In study 2, I proceed to suggest that making full use of women resource at the micro level is also important. The resource synergy perspective provides a new explanation for the roles of inequality and leadership in the utilization of women resources in organizations. This study proposes that women‘s inequality perceptions have negative effects on their performance in organizations, thus preventing organizations from making full use of its important strategic resources and generating synergy. With these damaging effects, it is difficult for an organization to make full use of women resources and achieve competitive advantages. However, with a high level of leader-member exchange (LMX), which indicates high quality in leader-member relationships, female employees may still have the motivation to perform well. Thus, the negative effects of inequality can be attenuated and women resources can be better utilized with the synergistic effects of LMX. To test the above hypotheses, I conduct two empirical studies in China. The sample of study 1 includes 132 organizations from the service industry. Results of the hierarchical regression analysis support the positive effects of increasing the proportion of women on the organization‘s return on assets (ROA) but fail to support its positive relationship with market growth. The results also reveal that organization synergy-relevant variables such as customer-oriented strategy, the culture of collectivism, and task complexity do generate synergy with women resources. In other words, with the existence of these variables, the positive effects of the proportion of women on ROA and market growth are both enhanced. Study 2, which is conducted in organizations from four industries in China (i.e., chemistry, electronic, manufacturing, and hospitality), consists of 190 female employees and 51 matched leaders. Results of the hierarchical regression analysis show that organization inequality is negatively related to women‘s job-related performance and positively relates to their turnover intentions. In addition, LMX is found to positively moderate the effects of inequality on women‘s job-related performance and negatively moderates the effects on their turnover intentions. At the end of this thesis, the research‘s theoretical and managerial implications are discussed. This thesis makes six contributions to the literature: 1) It is among the first to specify that women are a type of strategic resource for organizations and provide systematic investigations on how to make full use of this resource. 2) This research deepens the understanding of women as a type of resources by identifying certain boundary conditions; i.e., the synergy-relevant variables. 3) This research develops a new perspective (i.e., the resource synergy perspective) to study the utilization of women as a strategic resource for organizations at multi levels. 4) This research should extend the literature of culture by identifying the role of collectivism in making use of women as a resource. 5) This research can also add to the literature of leadership by examining the role of LMX in making use of women resources. 6) This research provides a new theoretical perspective for the relationship between employees‘ inequality perceptions and their job performance. In addition to the theoretical implications, this research also provides useful knowledge for the management in organizations. First, based on the research findings, organizations should provide equal opportunity in employment for women and include more women in the workforce. Second, it is also critical to retain the existing female workforce through better talent management, thereby providing a work environment supporting the utilization of women resources. Based on the synergy relevant variables examined in this research, organizations should pay attention to their strategy, culture and task characteristics. It is important for organizations to consider about whether their culture supports the utilization of women resources or not. By the culture of high collectivism, organizations can provide a favorable work environment where women are more likely to be accepted and respected. Moreover, a strategy of customer orientation is beneficial for women resource to be deployed fully. Also organization should pay attention to place women in appropriate tasks. Third, this research highlights the importance of women‘s individual performance in realizing their value in organizations. It is vital for organizations and managers to improve women‘s equality perceptions within organizations. Moreover, managers and organizations should take measures to enhance the quality of leader-subordinate exchange relationship. Moreover, the strength and limitations of this research are also discussed. The research has several strengths. First, this research is theory-driven. Second, I conduct two empirical studies at multi-levels to address the issue of making full use of women in organizations. Third, the sample size is large in both studies (study 1, 132 organizations; study 2, 190 female employees and 51 matched leaders). Fourth, the threat of common method bias is further minimized because I collect the data of study 2 from both employees and their immediate supervisors. Fifth, I adopted the appropriate approaches to analyze the data and test the hypotheses. Finally, I try to suggest possible directions for future research on the utilization of women resources in organizations. Keywords: utilization of women resources, the proportion of women, inequality, resource synergy, performance

In today’s fashion market there are a great number of actors that offer a huge selection ofproducts. The fashion world today covers the whole world and a result of this, the competitionamong fashion companies are enormous, leading to a tough climate for companies in today’sfashion industry. There is an overproduction of goods on the market and companies mustcompete for customers because of today's homogeneous goods and prices. Caused by theglobal competition, there is an increased need for fashion chains to get to know their marketsand strategically meet the challenge to win the consumers attention.We have chosen in our study to research, describe and analyze what the main differencesbetween the clothing markets affecting a Lindex audience in Sweden and Norway are. Wehave defined ourselves to product group women’s wear. Our intention is to gain an insightinto how Lindex clothing market differs between Sweden and Norway but also to find anydifferences in culture and perception about fashion and trends.The essay has a hermeneutical approach because the aim was to interpret and analyze theempirical material we collected through our case study of Lindex and its markets. We chosean abductive approach because we, in our survey have assumed from our empirical material,i.e. inductive approach, and then linked together with our observations from the surveys andinterviews with the theories, based on the deductive approach. The focus of our essay isdescriptive because we have chosen to explain the differences between the Lindex Swedishand Norwegian market through the company’s perspective, but also from a consumer’s pointof view. We have carried out a qualitative study by gathering the material for our report fromboth interviews and surveys, together with theory to create an overall picture.In our theoretical frame of reference, we have chosen to focus on a number of key areas fromour material. We chose to primarily focus on consumer behavior, as it is central in our studies.The studies involve verbal interviews with marketing manager Nina Haugen from the LindexOslo office and Lena Renman from the Gothenburg office. Surveys on both markets provide asnapshot of the consumer view of Lindex. In the analysis part of the essay we have focusedon the similarities and differences between theory and empiri. By our study of the LindexNorwegian and Swedish market, we have found out that the concepts are similar to oneanother, but that the markets differ in important areas. We have identified the differences inhow the Norwegian and Swedish Lindex consumers view and understand their products.Simultaneously cultural aspects such as traditions and celebrations can also affect consumerbehavior. Furthermore, there are differences on how trends and fashions are perceived andassimilated by consumers. Another problem to take into account are the different demandsand needs within the market. / Program: Textilekonomutbildningen

The purpose of this study was to examine how to enhance the buffering effects of stereotype threat interventions among women. We specifically wanted to understand whether self-affirmation type and self-construal levels, an individual difference variable, interact to mitigate the gender performance gap among Masters of Business Administration (MBA) students. By examining how an individual difference variable, such as self-construal level, impacts the way people respond to a stereotype threat intervention, we hoped to elucidate factors that could help tailor interventions according to an individual’s needs. Participants were assigned to one of three self-affirmation conditions: 1) individual self-affirmation, 2) collective self-affirmation, and 3) control condition. In the individual self-affirmation condition, participants were asked to write about a value that was important to them; in the collective self-affirmation condition, participants were asked to write about a value that was important to them and a group with whom they identified; and in the control condition, participants were asked to write about a value that might be important to someone else. Study results revealed that the gender performance gap as measured by semester grades in the core quantitative courses disappeared for women who engaged in an individual self-affirmation condition, but not for women who were assigned to the collective self-affirmation or control condition. Moreover, the results also showed that when there was alignment between a woman’s self-construal level and the type of affirmation received, the buffering effects of the intervention were enhanced even more. More specifically, we saw enhanced performance for women who were high on individualism, but low on collectivism and assigned to the individual self-affirmation condition as well as for women who were high on collectivism, but low on individualism and assigned to the collective self-affirmation condition. Study significance and implications are discussed.

Cybersecurity is an issue of great concern today; data breaches are becoming more frequent and are causing huge economic losses in almost all the industry sectors. The majority of them are caused by malicious or criminal attacks perpetrated by individuals also known as “hackers”. Although the mainstream portrait of hackers nowadays brings to mind the idea of cybercriminals, not all hackers are malicious ones. The word hacker in its original sense only describes a computer enthusiast and a skilled programmer who was eager to learn how computers work. The key to distinguish a good or a bad hacker lies only in the specific intent and the permission to hack. Recently many companies are indeed hiring hackers to test their systems and protect them from the malicious attacks. The strength of good hackers is that they possess the same skills as malicious ones but they use them to enhance security. At the present stage, the process of hiring candidates for internet security positions for the majority of organizations, and business corporations relies mainly on interviews, while few of them advertise some sort of hacking challenges to be solved by potential applicants in order to evaluate upfront their skills and abilities. Moreover, an in-depth review of the literature has revealed that, so far, no systematic investigation has been carried out on the cognitive skills that characterise ethical hackers, experts who are professionally trained to protect systems’ security. The present PhD thesis offers a contribution that starts filling this gap in the literature with an exploratory investigation on the cognitive skills related with hacking expertise on a behavioural level. Findings show that hackers possess stronger systemizing traits as compared to the general population, and suggest a role of the ability to systemize on hacking performance. Moreover, performance on hacking-related tasks is shown to be related with mental rotation abilities and a field independent cognitive style. These findings have both theoretical and practical applications that are extensively discussed; together with possible future directions.

Zhang Kai. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 99-102). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.6 / Chapter 1.1 --- The Generalized PML Theory --- p.6 / Chapter 1.1.1 --- Background --- p.6 / Chapter 1.1.2 --- Derivation --- p.8 / Chapter 1.1.3 --- Reflection Properties --- p.11 / Chapter 1.2 --- Unified Formulation --- p.12 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- "Face-, Edge- and Corner-PMLs" --- p.12 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Unified PML Equations in 3D --- p.15 / Chapter 1.2.3 --- Unified PML Equations in 2D --- p.16 / Chapter 1.2.4 --- Examples of PML Formulations --- p.16 / Chapter 1.3 --- Inhomogeneous Initial Conditions --- p.23 / Chapter 2 --- Numerical Analysis of PMLs --- p.25 / Chapter 2.1 --- Continuous PMLs --- p.26 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- PMLs for Wave Equations --- p.27 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Finite PMLs for Wave Equations --- p.31 / Chapter 2.1.3 --- Berenger's PMLs for Maxwell Equations --- p.33 / Chapter 2.1.4 --- Finite Berenger's PMLs for Maxwell Equations --- p.35 / Chapter 2.1.5 --- PMLs for Acoustic Equations --- p.38 / Chapter 2.1.6 --- Berenger's PMLs for Acoustic Equations --- p.39 / Chapter 2.1.7 --- PMLs for 1-D Hyperbolic Systems --- p.42 / Chapter 2.2 --- Discrete PMLs --- p.44 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Discrete PMLs for Wave Equations --- p.44 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Finite Discrete PMLs for Wave Equations --- p.51 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Discrete Berenger's PMLs for Wave Equations --- p.53 / Chapter 2.2.4 --- Finite Discrete Berenger's PMLs for Wave Equations --- p.56 / Chapter 2.2.5 --- Discrete PMLs for 1-D Hyperbolic Systems --- p.58 / Chapter 2.3 --- Modified Yee schemes for PMLs --- p.59 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Stability of the Yee Scheme for Wave Equation --- p.61 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Decay of the Yee Scheme Solution to the Berenger's PMLs --- p.62 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Stability and Convergence of the Yee Scheme for the Berenger's PMLs --- p.67 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- Decay of the Yee Scheme Solution to the Hagstrom's PMLs --- p.70 / Chapter 2.3.5 --- Stability and Convergence of the Yee Scheme for the Hagstrom's PMLs --- p.75 / Chapter 2.4 --- Modified Lax-Wendroff Scheme for PMLs --- p.80 / Chapter 2.4.1 --- Exponential Decays in Parabolic Equations --- p.80 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Exponential Decays in Hyperbolic Equations --- p.82 / Chapter 2.4.3 --- Exponential Decays of Modified Lax-Wendroff Solutions --- p.86 / Chapter 3 --- Numerical Simulation --- p.93 / Bibliography --- p.99

這項研究的目的旨在探討香港15歲學生在科學素養上的性別差異及這些差異如何影響男女生在選擇以科學作為升學及職業的動機。 / 本研究的數據取自2006年在本港舉行的香港學生能力國際評估計劃(Programme for International Student Assessment)。該計劃的4645學生樣本取自146所學校，包括：官立、資助及私立學校，以兩階段分層隨機抽樣的方法選取。 / 學生能力國際評估計劃如其他大型國際評估一樣，其評估框架採用多維試題架構。本研究採用配合該試題架構及樣本結構的多維試題功能（MDIF）及多層中介變項（MLM）兩個研究方法，去了解15歲男女學生在科學素養(認知和情感)上的性別差異及這些差異如何影響男女生在選擇以科學作為升學及職業的動機。比較常用的均差t-檢定，MDIF具備提高各次級量尺的精確度特質，因而可以更有效和準確地計算出男女學生在科學素養上的性別差異。MLM則以Eccles (1983) 的成功期望價值理論為學理基礎去分析和了解這些性別差異如何影響男女生在選取與科學相關的升學途徑和擇業的動機。 / 要完成MLM的研究，我們必須先使用單組驗證性因子分析(Single-Group CFA)驗證經濟合作與發展組織(OECD)所建構的六項情意因素，包括：「科學上的自我概念」、「科學的個人價值」、「科學的興趣」、「對科學的喜好」、「學習科學的工具性動機」和「將來工作而學習科學的動機」，以便了解使用這些源自西方社會的情意因素在本土研究的可行性及效度。接着使用本土數據去調整這六項情意因素結構。最後利用多組驗證性因子分析(Multiple-Group CFA)去確定這些因素結構對男女生是否都適用(即測量等同檢驗Measurement Invariance Test)。 / 由單組驗證性因子分析結果得知，六項情意因素，除了要對「科學的興趣」因素作較大幅度的修改外，其他五項因素都具有良好的心理測量特性。而多組驗證性因子分析的結果亦顯示，六項情意因素都能通過測量等同檢驗，亦即這六項因素結構對男女生都適用。 / 研究結果顯示除了「鑑定形成科學議題」能力外，本港15歲的男生在「解釋科學現象」及「科學證」等科學認知層面上優於女生。在科學情意發展上，男生比女生亦有更好的發展，其效應值(effect size)更高於認知層面。 / MLM的研究結果與Eccles的成功期望價值理論預測結果吻合，也就是說，男女生在面向未來升學選科和擇業動機上呈現明顯的性別差異，而這些差異主要是透過情意因素(中介變項)間接影響男女生的選擇意向。就這些因素而言，女生在選取科學作為未來升學途徑和職業動機明顯地較男生為弱。 / 整體而言，驗證性因子分析結果和MLM的研究結果支持源自西方社會的Eccles成功期望價值理論具備跨文化效度，在香港華人社會的研究結果與西方結果基本吻合。 / 最後，本文作者將根據本研究的結果，向科學教育的工作者、教師、父母、課程發展人員、政策的制定者和考核機構提供一些可行的建議，希望藉此改善香港男女生在科學生涯規劃上的性別差異。 / The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of gender differences of 15-year-old students on scientific literacy and their impacts on students' motivation to pursue science education and careers (Future-oriented Science Motivation) in Hong Kong. / The data for this study was collected from the Program for International Student Assessment in Hong Kong (HKPISA). It was carried out in 2006. A total of 4,645 students were randomly selected from 146 secondary schools including government, aided and private schools by two-stage stratified sampling method for the assessment. / HKPISA 2006, like most of other large-scale international assessments, presents its assessment frameworks in multidimensional subscales. To fulfill the requirements of this multidimensional assessment framework, this study deployed new approaches to model and investigate gender differences in cognitive and affective latent traits of scientific literacy by using multidimensional differential item functioning (MDIF) and multilevel mediation (MLM). Compared with mean score difference t-test, MDIF improves the precision of each subscales measure at item level and the gender differences in science performance can be accurately estimated. In the light of Eccles et al (1983) Expectancy-value Model of Achievement-related Choices (Eccles' Model), MLM examines the pattern of gender effects on Future-oriented Science Motivation mediated through cognitive and affective factors. / As for MLM investigation, Single-Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis (Single-Group CFA) was used to confirm the applicability and validity of six affective factors which was, originally prepared by OECD. These six factors are Science Self-concept, Personal Value of Science, Interest in Science Learning, Enjoyment of Science Learning, Instrumental Motivation to Learn Science and Future-oriented Science Motivation. Then, Multiple Group CFA was used to verify measurement invariance of these factors across gender groups. / The results of Single-Group CFA confirmed that five out of the six affective factors except Interest in Science Learning had strong psychometric properties in the context of Hong Kong. Multiple-group CFA results also confirmed measurement invariance of these factors across gender groups. / The findings of this study suggest that 15-year-old school boys consistently outperformed girls in most of the cognitive dimensions except identifying scientific issues. Similarly, boys have higher affective learning outcomes than girls. The effect sizes of gender differences in affective learning outcomes are relatively larger than that of cognitive one. / The MLM study reveals that gender effects on Future-oriented Science Motivation mediate through affective factors including Science Self-concept, Enjoyment of Science Learning, Interest in Science Learning, Instrumental Motivation to Learn Science and Personal Value of Science. Girls are significantly affected by the negative impacts of these mediating factors and thus Future-oriented Science Motivation. The MLM results were consistent with the predications by Eccles' Model. / Overall, the CFA and MLM results provide strong support for cross-cultural validity of Eccles’ Model. In light of our findings, recommendations to reduce the gender differences in science achievement and Future-oriented Science Motivation are made for science education participants, teachers, parents, curriculum leaders, examination bodies and policy makers. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Wong, Kwan Yin. / Thesis (Ed.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2012. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 158-182). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese. / ABSTRACT --- p.i / ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS --- p.v / TABLE OF CONTENTS --- p.vi / LIST OF TABLES --- p.xi / LIST OF FIGURES --- p.xiii / ABBREVIATIONS --- p.xiv / Chapter CHAPTER ONE --- INTRODUCTION / Chapter 1.1 --- Background of the study --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.1 --- Gender-equity in global content of education --- p.2 / Chapter 1.1.2 --- Gender differences in science performance and affective learning --- p.8 / Chapter 1.1.3 --- Gender differences in variability of science performance --- p.11 / Chapter 1.1.4 --- PISA background --- p.13 / Chapter 1.2 --- Weaknesses of previous gender studies --- p.13 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Weaknesses of measurement models based on total score --- p.13 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Weaknesses of unidimensional measurement models --- p.14 / Chapter 1.2.3 --- Strength of multidimensional IRT models --- p.14 / Chapter 1.2.4 --- Strength of multilevel models --- p.14 / Chapter 1.3 --- Research questions --- p.16 / Chapter 1.4 --- Significance of the study --- p.17 / Chapter 1.4.1 --- For gender-equity educational policies in Hong Kong --- p.17 / Chapter 1.4.2 --- For local economic growth --- p.18 / Chapter 1.4.3 --- For gender-inclusive science curriculums, assessments & teachers' training --- p.19 / Chapter 1.4.4 --- For academic discourse in gender-equity --- p.20 / Chapter 1.5 --- Structure of the thesis --- p.20 / Chapter 1.6 --- Summary --- p.21 / Chapter CHAPTER TWO --- LITERATURE REVIEW / Chapter 2.1 --- Defining scientific literacy by historical review --- p.22 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- Cognitive domain of scientific literacy --- p.22 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Affective domain of scientific literacy --- p.30 / Chapter 2.1.2.1 --- Taxonomy of affective domain elements in science education --- p.30 / Chapter 2.1.2.2 --- Science self-concept --- p.31 / Chapter 2.1.2.3 --- Motivation in science learning --- p.31 / Chapter 2.2 --- Gender differences in scientific literacy --- p.33 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Defining gender: the nature versus nurture debate --- p.33 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Gender differences in cognitive learning outcomes --- p.33 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Gender differences in affective learning outcomes --- p.38 / Chapter 2.2.4 --- Gender differences in science educational and occupational choices --- p.40 / Chapter 2.3 --- Factors attributing gender differences --- p.44 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Biological contributions --- p.44 / Chapter 2.3.1.1 --- Evolutionary psychology perspectives --- p.44 / Chapter 2.3.1.2 --- Brain structural perspectives --- p.45 / Chapter 2.3.1.3 --- Brain functional perspectives --- p.45 / Chapter 2.3.1.4 --- Hormonal perspectives --- p.46 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Sociocultural contributions --- p.46 / Chapter 2.3.2.1 --- Gender-role --- p.47 / Chapter 2.3.2.2 --- Schooling and family conditions --- p.47 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Item characteristics attributing to gender differences --- p.49 / Chapter 2.3.3.1 --- Scientific content --- p.49 / Chapter 2.3.3.2 --- Item format --- p.49 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- Expectancy-value model of achievement-related choices in science --- p.50 / Chapter 2.3.4.1 --- Self-concept of ability as mediator of gendered choices --- p.51 / Chapter 2.3.4.2 --- Subjective task values as mediators of gendered choices --- p.52 / Chapter 2.4 --- Local research on gender differences in scientific literacy . --- p.52 / Chapter 2.4.1 --- Gender differences in science performance --- p.52 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Gender differences in affective domain --- p.56 / Chapter 2.5 --- Summary --- p.57 / Chapter CHAPTER THREE --- RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS / Chapter 3.1 --- PISA 2006 database --- p.58 / Chapter 3.2 --- Conceptual framework of present study --- p.60 / Chapter 3.3 --- Conceptualization and operationalization of scientific literacy --- p.62 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Cognitive domain --- p.61 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Affective domain --- p.63 / Chapter 3.3.2.1 --- Science Self-concept --- p.65 / Chapter 3.3.2.2 --- Personal Value of Science --- p.67 / Chapter 3.3.2.3 --- Interest and Enjoyment of Science Learning --- p.68 / Chapter 3.3.2.4 --- Motivation to Learn Science --- p.72 / Chapter 3.4 --- Conceptualization and operationalization of Parental SES --- p.74 / Chapter 3.5 --- Multidimensional Differential Item Functioning (MDIF) --- p.75 / Chapter 3.5.1 --- The item response (IRT) model --- p.75 / Chapter 3.5.1.1 --- DIF model for gender differences studies --- p.77 / Chapter 3.5.1.2 --- Effect size by DIF --- p.79 / Chapter 3.5.1.3 --- Item fit statistics --- p.79 / Chapter 3.6 --- Model testing in SEM . --- p.80 / Chapter 3.7 --- Summary --- p.80 / Chapter CHAPTER FOUR --- GENDER DIFFERENCES IN STUDENTS’ COGNITIVE & AFFECTIVE LEARNING OUTCOMES / Chapter 4.1 --- Gender differences in students' cognitive outcomes --- p.81 / Chapter 4.1.1 --- Gender differences in science performance dimensions --- p.81 / Chapter 4.1.1.1 --- Gender differences in science performance dimensions measured by MSD --- p.82 / Chapter 4.1.1.2 --- Gender differences in science performance dimensions measured by MDIF --- p.84 / Chapter 4.1.2 --- Gender differences in content domains --- p.86 / Chapter 4.1.2.1 --- Gender differences in content domains measured by MSD --- p.86 / Chapter 4.1.2.2 --- Gender differences in content domains measured by MDIF --- p.87 / Chapter 4.1.3 --- Gender differences in item formats --- p.89 / Chapter 4.1.4 --- Gender variability in science performance --- p.90 / Chapter 4.1.4.1 --- Gender variability measured by variance ratio (B/G) --- p.90 / Chapter 4.1.4.2 --- Gender variability measured by number of students against each ability estimate --- p.92 / Chapter 4.2 --- Gender differences in students' affective learning outcomes measured by MSD --- p.95 / Chapter 4.3 --- Gender differences in science achievement related choices measured by MSD . --- p.98 / Chapter 4.4 --- Gender differences in students' affective learning outcomes measured by DIF --- p.99 / Chapter 4.5 --- Gender differences in science achievement related choices measured by DIF --- p.100 / Chapter 4.6 --- Summary --- p.101 / Chapter CHAPTER FIVE --- THE FINDINGS BY EXPECTANCY-VALUE MODEL OF ACHIEVEMENT-RELATED CHOICES / Chapter 5.1 --- Pearson correlations between affective factors and gender --- p.104 / Chapter 5.2 --- Gender differences by revised Expectancy-value Model --- p.106 / Chapter 5.2.1 --- Grouping homogeneity --- p.106 / Chapter 5.2.2 --- Mediation effect of Science Performance --- p.106 / Chapter 5.2.3 --- Mediation effect of Science Self-concept --- p.109 / Chapter 5.2.4 --- Mediation effect of Interest in Science Learning --- p.112 / Chapter 5.2.5 --- Mediation effect of Enjoyment of Science Learning --- p.113 / Chapter 5.2.6 --- Mediation effect of Interest and Enjoyment of Science Learning --- p.116 / Chapter 5.2.7 --- Mediation effect of Attainment Value --- p.117 / Chapter 5.2.8 --- Mediation effect of Utility Value --- p.119 / Chapter 5.2.9 --- Mediation through Attainment Value and Utility Value --- p.121 / Chapter 5.2.10 --- Full models of gender effects on Future-oriented Science Motivation --- p.122 / Chapter 5.3 --- Summary --- p.126 / Chapter CHAPTER SIX --- CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS / Chapter 6.1 --- Database and data analysis --- p.129 / Chapter 6.2 --- Major findings --- p.130 / Chapter 6.2.1 --- Multidimensional DIF model --- p.130 / Chapter 6.2.2 --- Multilevel Mediation using Expectancy-Value Model --- p.134 / Chapter 6.3 --- Revisiting conceptual model --- p.137 / Chapter 6.4 --- Implications for policy and practice --- p.139 / Chapter 6.4.1 --- Implications for policy makers --- p.139 / Chapter 6.4.2 --- Implications for school administrators, teachers and textbook authors --- p.140 / Chapter 6.4.3 --- Implications for parents and students --- p.140 / Chapter 6.5 --- Limitations and recommendations for future research --- p.143 / Chapter 6.5.1 --- Limitations of the study --- p.143 / Chapter 6.5.2 --- Recommendations for future research --- p.144 / Chapter Appendix A --- Handling missing values --- p.146 / Chapter Appendix B --- Booklet effects --- p.149 / Chapter Appendix C --- Wright map for science performance dimensions --- p.151 / Chapter Appendix D --- Gender differences in scientific performance measured by MDIF --- p.152 / References --- p.158

The purpose of this study was to understand whether physician leaders are subject to gender bias in the form of differential work outcomes. Specifically, the primary goal was to examine whether the gender of a successful physician leader, the medical specialty in which he or she works (surgery or pediatrics), and participant level of social dominance orientation (SDO; level of egalitarianism) influenced the allocation of workplace outcomes (i.e., evaluations of performance, promotion recommendations, and characterizations of ability and effort). This study further explored if ability and effort characterizations mediated the relationship between gender, specialty, and participant SDO on evaluations of performance and promotion recommendations. Attempting to elucidate the atypical but increasing phenomenon in which successful female leaders in male-typed jobs receive higher performance evaluations, but lower rates of promotion as compared to equivalent males; this study drew on attribution theory to explain that characterizations of successful women as “hard workers” (effort) may be seen as deserving of high evaluations of performance but not promotions, while being “brilliant” (ability) may be seen as deserving of promotions and reserved for successful men. Results revealed an unexpected overall boost for female surgeons, awarded especially by participants low in SDO (those most egalitarian) such that female surgeons received significantly better outcomes as compared to female pediatricians and equivalent outcomes as compared to male physicians. Male surgeons and pediatricians were largely awarded equivalent outcomes across all levels of participant SDO. Further, mediation was supported only for female surgeons, such that higher characterizations of effort explained higher evaluations of performance, particularly by those low in SDO. Further research is required to understand why successful women receive higher evaluations of performance, but not promotions.

No description available.

The aim of this research thesis was to investigate whether there are any cognitive factors that might influence reported dream colour. This question was prompted by the existence of a period of time in the early 20th century when the majority of people reported having greyscale dreams, and coloured dreaming was treated as an anomaly. On the level of individual differences, age, visual imagery abilities and memory for colour were singled out as the potential contributors to reports of greyscale television and the changes in the methodology of research were preliminarily identified as the possible causes of the historical trends in the colour of dreams, and the first empirical studies in this thesis address these issues. Subsequent studies explored the role of visual imagery ability, and individual differences in cognitive representation and memory in determining the reporting of colour in dreams. Overall a total of seven studies are reported The range of methods employed in these studies was diverse and required the development of new measures of colour memory and visual imagery. Some studies employed diaries to gather dream data and allowed cross-sectional (e.g. age) or cross-cultural comparisons. Others were more laboratory-based and explored data concerning visual memory and imagery performance with diverse dependent measures (e.g. response time data). In addition these studies involved the development of a novel coding scheme for visual dream content. While it was impossible to decisively support or disprove the idea that greyscale dream reports reflect genuine dream experiences, the research carried out for this thesis provided many fascinating insights into the factors that determine how we dream and how we report our dreams, highlighting the role of our cognitive abilities and preferences. Moreover, the studies have uncovered novel ways in which visual imagery preferences shape how we remember and report our experiences. The implications of these findings are important not just for the methodology of dream research, but for the whole field of cognitive and applied psychology