This thesis aims to provide a comprehensive theory of age discrimination that can guide the direct and indirect age discrimination provisions of the Equality Act 2010. The Act holds that unequal treatment on the grounds of age and measures that are on their face age-neutral but have the effect of disadvantaging particular age groups are lawful only if the treatment can be shown either to be a 'proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim' or if the treatment fits into a specifically prescribed exception. In this way, the proportionality test distinguishes justified and unjustified age-differential treatment with only the former legally permissible. I outline and defend a pluralist theory of age discrimination that assists in making the distinction between justified and unjustified age-differential treatment. The theory identifies the principles that explain when and why age-differential treatment wrongs people and the principles that can justify this treatment. It is a pluralist theory because it recognises that age-differential treatment can wrong people for a number of different, overlapping reasons, and these different reasons should inform how we apply age discrimination law. The pluralist theory of age discrimination theory can improve legal reasoning in age discrimination cases by articulating the relevant principles and competing interests that are at stake in age discrimination claims. In constructing the theory, I adopt the reflective equilibrium method. This requires that I 'test' my starting moral intuitions against other beliefs, seeking coherence among these beliefs, and revising the beliefs as a result of particular challenges to them. In applying this method, I identify the following five principles to form a pluralist theory of age discrimination: equality of opportunity, social equality, respect, autonomy and efficiency.

Children's relationships with their parents are considered to be a major influence in their development. Parents' use of discipline with their children, in particular, constitutes a major component of the parent-child relationship and is linked to children's later social skills and behavioral and emotional functioning. Prior studies have shown that parents treat their children differently. The purpose of this dissertation was to examine whether parents use differing levels of discipline with their children and to delineate parent, child, and contextual factors associated with differential parental discipline. This study utilized a behavior genetics twin study design to control for extraneous influences, such age and life changes, which may significantly impact a parents' use of discipline. Participants in this study consisted of 38 families (36 twin pairs, 2 sets of triplets) who had previously participated in the Southern Illinois Twins and Siblings Study (SITSS; DiLalla, 2002) and were now between the ages of 5 ½ to 10 ½. Children and their parents were each asked to report on various parenting practices and discipline techniques used within their home. Parents completed a variety of questionnaires assessing socioeconomic status, interparental conflict, parent personality, child temperament, and child emotional and behavioral functioning and mothers tracked their discipline for one week through a diary. Results from this study showed that children living in the same family experience different levels and types of discipline. Child temperament and emotional/behavioral functioning were related to differential discipline practices. The twin in the family rated as exhibiting greater levels of extraversion, effortful control, and prosocial skills received more sensitive parental discipline. In contrast, the twin showing more conduct problems, peer problems, emotional symptoms, and inattention/ hyperactivity experienced harsher parental discipline. Importantly, parents and their children did not agree on the amount of differential discipline used in their homes. Parents reported using similar levels of discipline with both of their children and children reported large differences in the type and amount of discipline shown to them and their co-twins. Findings from this study could add to the effectiveness of many parent training programs by helping parents to understand the interactions between various parent, child, and contextual characteristics in the initiation of parental disciplinary strategies. Through this understanding, parents may begin to match their disciplinary styles to best meet their children's phenotypic characteristics and needs and environmental demands. Lastly, the search for various genetic and environmental factors associated with harsh discipline practices will greatly enhance the success of prevention programs. By being able to determine familial and contextual characteristics associated with harsh or aversive punishment practices, we may be able to predict those parents most at risk for harsh discipline and to intervene before abusive discipline practices are used.

This study investigated the association between the severity of Tourette Syndrome (TS) and comorbid tendencies (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), and rage), maternal differential treatment, fairness evaluation of maternal differential treatment, and communication with both sibling and family relationships. Fifty-five mothers and healthy siblings of individuals with Tourette Syndrome participated in the study. The parents provided information regarding family demographics and the severity of Tourette Syndrome and comorbid tendencies, and the healthy siblings completed the sibling and family relationship questionnaires. The questionnaires were posted on a secure website, where the parents and healthy siblings could complete the online measures via internet connections. <br /><br /> The study revealed several important findings. The results showed significant associations between the severity of Tourette Syndrome and comorbid OCD, ADHD and rage tendencies thus suggesting that studying Tourette Syndrome without considering comorbidity would be unrealistic. Additionally, communication regarding Tourette Syndrome between the healthy siblings and their parents played an important role with respect to sibling and family relationships. Communication between the healthy siblings and their parents predicted more warmth between the healthy siblings and their sibling with Tourette Syndrome as well as more family cohesion and adaptability as reported by the healthy siblings. Communication had a significant moderating effect on both severity of Tourette Syndrome and healthy siblings' fairness evaluation of maternal differential treatment in predicting family relationships. When the sibling had less severe Tourette Syndrome, the healthy siblings reported more family adaptability when they had more communication with their parents, and reported less family adaptability when they had less communication with their parents. The results also indicated that when healthy siblings perceived their maternal differential treatment to be unfair, they reported more family cohesion when they had more communication with their parents, and reported less family cohesion when they had less communication with their parents. The study did not support the negative impact of maternal differential treatment on sibling relationships; however, the results confirmed the previous findings regarding the moderating effect of fairness evaluation on maternal differential treatment in predicting sibling relationships. When the sibling with Tourette Syndrome was favored, the healthy siblings reported more sibling warmth when they perceived the favouritism (maternal differential treatment) to be fair. Furthermore, the results showed that healthy siblings' perceptions of maternal differential treatment could predict cohesion and adaptability in the family. The more the healthy siblings reported being treated differently by their mothers, the less cohesion and adaptability they reported in their families. <br /><br /> The present study supported previous studies in finding that sibling conflict decreased with age. The results also highlighted the role of age in moderating the effects of communication and maternal differential treatment in predicting sibling conflict. When healthy siblings had more communication with their parents they reported more conflict with their sibling with Tourette Syndrome when they were younger, and reported less sibling conflict with their sibling with Tourette Syndrome when they were older. Furthermore, when healthy siblings were favored by their mothers, they reported more conflict with their sibling with Tourette Syndrome when they were younger than when they were older, thereby emphasizing the importance of developmental differences in dynamics between the siblings. The significant contributions of the study include underlining the importance of communication, the relationship between Tourette Syndrome and comorbid conditions, and healthy siblings' perceptions of sibling and family relationships.

O fenômeno do desenvolvimento é percebido neste trabalho a partir do objetivo de realização do ser humano. O tratamento dispensado a Estados em diferentes estágios de desenvolvimento frente às regras multilaterais de comércio adquire importante papel na conformação do comércio internacional frente aos desafios do desenvolvimento. Os estudos havidos no âmbito da Comissão Econômica para América Latina e Caribe (CEPAL) são essenciais para fundamentar a necessidade de um tratamento especial e diferenciado, assim como uma diferenciação clara dos graus de desenvolvimento dos Estados participantes do sistema multilateral de comércio. A presente tese busca demonstrar a necessidade de revisão dos instrumentos de tratamento especial e diferenciado atualmente aplicados aos membros do sistema multilateral de comércio, tendo como base uma metodologia de diferenciação que identifique de forma mais clara as reais necessidades de desenvolvimento dos membros do sistema multilateral de comércio, o que pode ser evidenciado a partir de uma análise mais detida do modelo latino-americano de padrões de desenvolvimento. / The phenomenon of development has as premise the aim of promotion of human being. The treatment of the different stages of development facing multilateral trade rules takes important role in shaping the international trade challenge of development. Studies held in the framework of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) are essential to substantiate the need for special and differential treatment and a clear differentiation of degrees of development of the participants of the multilateral trading system. This thesis seeks to demonstrate the need for revision of the instruments of special and differential treatment currently applied to members of the multilateral trading system based on a method of differentiation to identify more clearly the real development needs of members of the multilateral trading system, which can be evidenced from an analysis of the model held on Latin American patterns of development.

Book Summary: A teacher’s ability to manage the classroom strongly influences the quality of teaching and learning that can be accomplished. Among the most pressing concerns for inexperienced teachers is classroom management, a concern of equal importance to the general public in light of behavior problems and breakdowns in discipline that grab newspaper headlines. But classroom management is not just about problems and what to do when things go wrong and chaos erupts. It’s about how to run a classroom so as to elicit the best from even the most courteous group of students. An array of skills is needed to produce such a learning environment. The SAGE Encyclopedia of Classroom Management raises issues and introduces evidence-based, real-world strategies for creating and maintaining well-managed classrooms where learning thrives. Students studying to become teachers will need to develop their own classroom management strategies consistent with their own philosophies of teaching and learning. It is hoped that this work will help open their eyes to the range of issues and the array of skills they might integrate into their unique teaching styles.

I afhandlingen "Lighed gennem særbehandling?" udforsker Gro Hellesdatter Jacobsen to aktuelle former for særbehandling af etniske minoritetsbørn i folkeskolen med øget lighed som formål nemlig heldagsskoler og spredning på baggrund af sprogtest. Via en samtidsdiagnostisk tilgang sættes de to politikker i forbindelse med aktuelle samfundsmæssige tendenser, og dermed gives der bud på, hvorfor det siden 2005 har været legitimt at foretage eksplicit særbehandling, der betyder at etniske minoritetsbørns rettigheder indskrænkes. Med udgangspunkt i dokumenter, interviews og observationer vises det, hvordan særbehandlingspolitikkerne er yderst komplekst begrundet, samt hvordan de konstitueres som særbehandling. Dels medfører de nye kategorier, ekspliciteringer og struktureringer og dels gør de en forskel i etniske minoritetsbørns og deres familiers liv med hensyn til tid, sted og ansvar. Desuden vises det, hvordan tendenser til sprogfokus, undtagelser og national konkurrencestat kan forklare politikkernes fremkomst og legitimitet og hermed præsenterer afhandlingen alternativer til eksisterende kritikker af særbehandling som udtryk for nationalistisk og racistisk motiveret diskrimination.

This study investigated the association between the severity of Tourette Syndrome (TS) and comorbid tendencies (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), and rage), maternal differential treatment, fairness evaluation of maternal differential treatment, and communication with both sibling and family relationships. Fifty-five mothers and healthy siblings of individuals with Tourette Syndrome participated in the study. The parents provided information regarding family demographics and the severity of Tourette Syndrome and comorbid tendencies, and the healthy siblings completed the sibling and family relationship questionnaires. The questionnaires were posted on a secure website, where the parents and healthy siblings could complete the online measures via internet connections. <br /><br /> The study revealed several important findings. The results showed significant associations between the severity of Tourette Syndrome and comorbid OCD, ADHD and rage tendencies thus suggesting that studying Tourette Syndrome without considering comorbidity would be unrealistic. Additionally, communication regarding Tourette Syndrome between the healthy siblings and their parents played an important role with respect to sibling and family relationships. Communication between the healthy siblings and their parents predicted more warmth between the healthy siblings and their sibling with Tourette Syndrome as well as more family cohesion and adaptability as reported by the healthy siblings. Communication had a significant moderating effect on both severity of Tourette Syndrome and healthy siblings' fairness evaluation of maternal differential treatment in predicting family relationships. When the sibling had less severe Tourette Syndrome, the healthy siblings reported more family adaptability when they had more communication with their parents, and reported less family adaptability when they had less communication with their parents. The results also indicated that when healthy siblings perceived their maternal differential treatment to be unfair, they reported more family cohesion when they had more communication with their parents, and reported less family cohesion when they had less communication with their parents. The study did not support the negative impact of maternal differential treatment on sibling relationships; however, the results confirmed the previous findings regarding the moderating effect of fairness evaluation on maternal differential treatment in predicting sibling relationships. When the sibling with Tourette Syndrome was favored, the healthy siblings reported more sibling warmth when they perceived the favouritism (maternal differential treatment) to be fair. Furthermore, the results showed that healthy siblings' perceptions of maternal differential treatment could predict cohesion and adaptability in the family. The more the healthy siblings reported being treated differently by their mothers, the less cohesion and adaptability they reported in their families. <br /><br /> The present study supported previous studies in finding that sibling conflict decreased with age. The results also highlighted the role of age in moderating the effects of communication and maternal differential treatment in predicting sibling conflict. When healthy siblings had more communication with their parents they reported more conflict with their sibling with Tourette Syndrome when they were younger, and reported less sibling conflict with their sibling with Tourette Syndrome when they were older. Furthermore, when healthy siblings were favored by their mothers, they reported more conflict with their sibling with Tourette Syndrome when they were younger than when they were older, thereby emphasizing the importance of developmental differences in dynamics between the siblings. The significant contributions of the study include underlining the importance of communication, the relationship between Tourette Syndrome and comorbid conditions, and healthy siblings' perceptions of sibling and family relationships.

O fenômeno do desenvolvimento é percebido neste trabalho a partir do objetivo de realização do ser humano. O tratamento dispensado a Estados em diferentes estágios de desenvolvimento frente às regras multilaterais de comércio adquire importante papel na conformação do comércio internacional frente aos desafios do desenvolvimento. Os estudos havidos no âmbito da Comissão Econômica para América Latina e Caribe (CEPAL) são essenciais para fundamentar a necessidade de um tratamento especial e diferenciado, assim como uma diferenciação clara dos graus de desenvolvimento dos Estados participantes do sistema multilateral de comércio. A presente tese busca demonstrar a necessidade de revisão dos instrumentos de tratamento especial e diferenciado atualmente aplicados aos membros do sistema multilateral de comércio, tendo como base uma metodologia de diferenciação que identifique de forma mais clara as reais necessidades de desenvolvimento dos membros do sistema multilateral de comércio, o que pode ser evidenciado a partir de uma análise mais detida do modelo latino-americano de padrões de desenvolvimento. / The phenomenon of development has as premise the aim of promotion of human being. The treatment of the different stages of development facing multilateral trade rules takes important role in shaping the international trade challenge of development. Studies held in the framework of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) are essential to substantiate the need for special and differential treatment and a clear differentiation of degrees of development of the participants of the multilateral trading system. This thesis seeks to demonstrate the need for revision of the instruments of special and differential treatment currently applied to members of the multilateral trading system based on a method of differentiation to identify more clearly the real development needs of members of the multilateral trading system, which can be evidenced from an analysis of the model held on Latin American patterns of development.

Les conséquences des multiples menaces environnementales étant devenues largement observables et les pays en développement étant les plus vulnérables, une coopération internationale s'impose pour trouver des solutions efficaces à ces menaces touchant à l'intérêt commun. Comment organiser une coopération universelle entre des Etats qui diffèrent tant dans leurs responsabilités dans la création et la permanence des problèmes que dans leur vulnérabilité et leurs ressources et capacités de réactions ? Le droit international ne pouvait qu'avoir un rôle à jouer dans la construction de cette perspective universaliste. Il est devenu l'outil de préservation de l'environnement, au bénéfice de tous les Etats et le traitement différencié, notamment exprimé par le principe des responsabilités communes mais différenciées, s'est imposé comme base de cette coopération, créant un statut particulier pour certains Etats dans les accords. La différenciation dépasse cependant le cadre du seul principe pour essaimer dans toute la matière sous des expressions et par des moyens très divers ; gages supposés d'une meilleure mise en oeuvre des accords multilatéraux. Or, le constat inquiétant de la dégradation de l'environnement global laisse planer un doute quant à l'efficacité de la technique. En outre, le flou sur le contenu des catégories étatiques et les multiples différenciations possibles au sein même de ces catégories complexifient la construction et le rôle du droit international dans ce domaine. Il importe donc de revenir avec précision sur la définition, les acquis et faiblesse du traitement différencié en tant qu'outil de mise en oeuvre des accords multilatéraux environnementaux / The consequences major environmental threats have now become largely visible and developing countries are the most vulnerable to them. Given the scale of the situation, international cooperation appears necessary to find effective solutions to threats affecting common interests. But how can universal cooperation be organized between countries suffering from differences in terms of responsibilities in the emergence and perpetuation of the problem and of vulnerability, resources and capacities to react to such threats? International law was a tool to be used in the construction of this universal perspective. Thus, it has become a major bias to preserve the environment, for the benefit of all countries and differential treatment, expressed inter alia by the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, imposed itself as the basis of this cooperation, creating special status for the benefit of certain countries in environmental regimes.However, differential treatment exceeds the framework of this principle and appears under various expressions and ways of implementation. This diversity is supposed to help ensuring better compliance with environmental agreements. Yet, the actual degradation of the global environment casts a shade over the effectiveness of the technique. Meanwhile, the blurry frontier between states categories and the multiple possible differentiations inside each category complicate both the construction and role of international law in this area. Then, it appears necessary to come back, with precision, on the definition, achievements and limitations of differential treatment as a mean of implementation of multilateral environmental agreements

The Internet is being used more and more frequently as a way for people to meet. The Internet also provides increased opportunities to initiate couple relationships, as well as affairs. The present study adds to the existing literature base in Internet infidelity treatment as well as therapist conceptualization processes. The present study investigated how family therapists assess and treat Internet infidelity. It assessed whether gender and other social background variables of therapists are operating in treatment decisions. Specifically, this study provided three clinical vignettes to 508 practicing marriage and family therapists and asked them several treatment and assessment questions about the cases while manipulating the gender of the clients in the vignettes. The questions asked of clinicians assess the clinician's prognosis of the case, the clinician's treatment strategy, how many sessions might be necessary, and how severe the clinician perceives the problem. Results include: a) treatment decisions of therapists regarding Internet infidelity cases b) information as to whether the assessment and treatment decisions vary according to the gender of the clients in Internet infidelity vignettes c) whether the treatment decisions vary depending on the clinician's social background characteristics (such as age, religiosity, gender). The results indicate that therapists who are more religious tended to view Internet infidelity as that which might require a greater individual focus. Age and gender of the clinicians also affected how therapists used treated cases, with younger clinicians more likely to alter environmental issues and female clinicians more likely to focus on couple processes in treatment. Further, clinicians also viewed men as more likely to be sex addicted, while women engaging in the same behavior were viewed as atypical for engaging in the same behavior. Clinicians also made differential decisions in treatment based on client needs, client gender, client health, and their personal theoretical orientation. This study sheds light on the role of specific identity variables in treatment decisions. It also provides a foundational knowledge of the treatment of Internet infidelity that will serve as a springboard for future projects to examine the effectiveness of different treatments, develop treatment protocols, and elevate the standard of care for this increasingly prevalent presenting problem. / Ph. D.