Material utilisation is of importance in the manufacturing industry formaking the most of each material, minimising waste and increasing cost-effectiveness. In this thesis, samples of Waspaloy built with the method of L-DED-P has been analysed in order to investigate how process pa-rameters influence the build quality and geometrical accuracy in as-builtobjects. The samples analysed was built in single rows of one, three,five and fifteen layers. A build process was used in which the sampleswere built with individual combinations of the process parameters laserpower, scanning speed, and powder flow. Each combination of processparameters was used to build one track for each layer height.Analysis included defect analysis with light optical microscopy, andpost-processing with ImageJ for automatic identification, quantification,and collection of measurements. A qualitative analysis was performed andthe sample properties and characteristics was described in terms of theamount of defects, including a descriptive assessment of defect severity.Etched samples revealed a columnar grain structure in samples, which was apparent in builds with at least three layers.The results presented show a difference in build height, quantity andsize of pores, and the presence or absence of other defects such as lack of fusion. Sample 3 which was built with high laser power, slow scan-ning speed, and high powder feed show promising results with one ofthe highest build rates of all samples, combined with a low normalisedpore distribution. The sample experiences partial hardening, with hard-ness values reaching 320 HV, but still promisingly show no sign of crackformation.It is concluded that powder feed relates primarily to the build rateof the samples, and the scanning speed together with the laser power influence the quality of the build, where high laser power and low scanningspeed tends to form well behaving samples with few defects, whilst other combinations increase the risk of defects.

In recent years, additive manufacturing (AM) of Alloy 718 has received increasing interest in the field of manufacturing engineering owing to its attractive features compared to those of conventional manufacturing methods. The ability to produce complicated geometries, low cost of retooling, and control of the microstructure are some of the advantages of the AM process over traditional manufacturing methods. Nevertheless, during the building process, the build material undergoes complex thermal conditions owing to the inherent nature of the process. This results in phase transformation from liquid to solid and solid state. Thus, it creates microstructural gradients in the built objects, and as a result,heterogeneous material properties. The manufacturing process, including the following heat treatment that is used to minimise the heterogeneity, will cause the additively manufactured material to behave differently when compared to components produced by conventional manufacturing methods. Therefore, understanding the microstructure formation during the building and subsequent post-heat treatment is important, which is the objective of this work. Alloy 718 is a nickel-iron based super alloy that is widely used in the aerospace industry and in the gas turbine power plants for making components subjected tohigh temperatures. Good weldability, good mechanical properties at high temperatures, and high corrosion resistance make this alloy particularly suitablefor these applications. Nevertheless, the manufacturing of Alloy 718 components through traditional manufacturing methods is time-consuming and expensive. For example, machining of Alloy 718 to obtain the desired shape is difficult and resource-consuming, owing to significant material waste. Therefore, the application of novel non-conventional processing methods, such as AM, seems to be a promising technique for manufacturing near-net-shape complex components.In this work, microstructure modelling was carried out by using multiphase-field modelling to model the microstructure evolution in electron beam melting (EBM) and laser metal powder directed energy deposition (LMPDED) of Alloy 718 and x subsequent heat treatments. The thermal conditions that are generated during the building process were used as input to the models to predict the as-built microstructure. This as-built microstructure was then used as an input for the heat treatment simulations to predict the microstructural evolution during heat treatments. The results showed smaller dendrite arm spacing (one order of magnitude smaller than the casting material) in these additive manufactured microstructures, which creates a shorter diffusion length for the elements compared to the cast material. In EBM Alloy 718, this caused the material to have a faster homogenisation during in-situ heat treatment that resulting from the elevated powder bed temperature (> 1000 °C). In addition, the compositional segregation that occurs during solidification was shown to alter the local thermodynamic and kinetic properties of the alloy. This was observed in the predicted TTT and CCT diagrams using the JMat Pro software based on the predicted local segregated compositions from the multiphase-field models. In the LMPDED Alloy 718 samples, this resulted in the formation of δ phase in the interdendritic region during the solution heat treatment. Moreover, this resulted in different-size precipitation of γ'/γ'' in the inter-dendritic region and in the dendrite core. Themicro structure modelling predictions agreed well with the experimental observations. The proposed methodology used in this thesis work can be an appropriate tool to understand how the thermal conditions in AM affect themicro structure formation during the building process and how these as-built microstructures behave under different heat treatments.

The corrosion resistance under elevated temperature of additively manufactured 316L stainless steel made by directed energy deposition was studied. Test samples were prepared in a hybrid additive manufacturing machine using standard deposition parameters recommended by the manufacturer. Control samples were cut from wrought material to compare the results. The test was performed under a corrosive atmosphere with a solution of water with 3.5 % in weight of salt (NaCl). The total duration of the test was 635 hours, divided in five stages of 12, 24, 48, 226, and 325 hours to analyze the samples between each stage. The samples were analyzed quantitatively measuring weight loss and surface topography, and qualitatively by macroscopic inspection with digital photography, and microscopic inspection with optical and scanning electron microscopy. The results show a higher corrosion rate for the additively manufactured samples compared to the control samples. An evident increase in the size of pits initially present on the samples was observed and quantified on the additively manufactured. Although the additively manufactured samples were more aggressively attacked by corrosion, they still presented a shiny surface finish at the end of the test, reinforcing the idea of the formation of a passive oxide layer and suggesting that the corrosion was focalized in the surface defects by pitting and crevice corrosion mechanisms.

No description available.

In an effort to make the aerospace industry more sustainable, GKN Aerospace is heavily investing both time and money into additive manufacturing technologies. A challenging aspect with additive manufacturing is finding a set of process parameters that produces high quality parts and components to a standard that the aerospace industry demands. To aid the process development, turning to simulations is a great alternative and with the prospect of adding to the tools available, the work of this thesis has been focused on developing a mathematical model of the cross sectional deposition geometry. Through a literature study, an initial approach to developing such a model, as well as gaps in knowledge was established. Validation data was gathered by laser scanning additively manufactured builds. A model based on a fourth degree polynomial was developed. The fourth degree polynomial model was validated with the laser scan data using the mean squared error value and coefficient of determination as a quantifiable method of determining the goodness of fit. It was found to be an improvement over the common parabolic model found in the literature based on a second degree polynomial. The improved model manages to capture a wide variety of contact angles and the overlap region better follows the smooth transition between beads.

[ES] La fabricación aditiva, de sus siglas en inglés AM (Additive Manufacturing) es un proceso que construye objetos sólidos tridimensionales mediante la superposicióon de materiales basados en un modelo de diseño asistido por ordenador. La AM está llamada a convertirse en la próxima revolución industrial, transformando el panorama del desarrollo y la producción. La AM ofrece numerosas ventajas, como posibilidades de diseño complejas y flexibles, la eliminación de procesos intermedios como el mecanizado, la independencia de los costes de producción del tamaño de los lotes, la reducción de los residuos de material, las estructuras ligeras, las reparaciones personalizadas de las máquinas y la capacidad de desarrollar nuevos materiales, entre otras ventajas. En las tecnologías de fabricación aditiva que emplean un rayo láser como fuente de energía, la materia prima inicial (en forma de polvo o cable) es fundida por la fuente de calor láser de forma controlada, capa a capa, hasta crear un componente con dimensiones finales o casi finales. Estas tecnologías implican someter el material impreso a un proceso térmico único, en el que el material se funde en un área muy específica y luego se enfría rápidamente a velocidades extremadamente altas de hasta 10^6 K/s. Por lo tanto, las microestructuras que surgen de los procesos de fabricación en AM difieren significativamente de las que se consiguen en los procesos tradicionales. Además, los materiales que se emplean principalmente en la AM no se han diseñado explícitamente para estas tecnologías. Las características específicas de los procesos de AM pueden utilizarse para lograr microestructuras y propiedades distintas en aceros que han sido adaptados para aprovechar las rápidas velocidades de enfriamiento y la historia térmica del proceso, entre otros factores. Por el momento, el número de calidades de acero comerciales disponibles en el mercado de la AM es limitado. Diversas industrias demandan nuevos grados de acero con menor densidad para disminuir el peso sin comprometer las propiedades mecánicas. Los aceros con alto contenido en manganeso se consideran materiales muy prometedores para aplicaciones estructurales debido a su excepcional combinación de resistencia y ductilidad, con una baja densidad. Sin embargo, a pesar de sus excepcionales propiedades, los aceros con alto contenido en manganeso se enfrentan a diversas limitaciones o retos durante las técnicas de procesado convencionales. Afortunadamente, la solidificación rápida puede resolver estos problemas. En este sentido, las tecnologías de AM basadas en láser proporcionan velocidades de enfriamiento rápidas, así como flexibilidad en términos de diseño geométrico. Los nuevos retos de estas tecnologías implicarán la microsegregación y el agrietamiento en caliente o hot cracking en inglés, que se producen durante la solidificación. Esta tesis está dedicada a explotar el método CALPHAD para realizar cálculos termodinámicos con el fin de diseñar varios aceros con alto contenido en manganeso que puedan prevenir eficazmente los problemas de solidificación rápida en AM. Las composiciones de acero diseñadas se produjeron en forma de polvo para AM mediante atomización con gas. Se analizaron los polvos para determinar su microestructura en relación con la química y la velocidad de enfriamiento. Ajustando adecuadamente los parámetros de impresión, estos polvos de acero con alto contenido en manganeso se imprimieron con éxito en AM, dando lugar a densidades relativas superiores al 99.9%. Se analizó la microestructura de estas muestras totalmente densas y se comparó con sus respectivos polvos, con el fin de identificar cualquier diferencia resultante de las variaciones en la velocidad de enfriamiento y los ciclos térmicos. Por último, tras definir el mejor conjunto de condiciones de impresión para cada composición de polvo, se produjeron varias muestras para evaluar las propiedades mecánicas. / [CA] La fabricació additiva, de les seues sigles en anglés AM (Additive Manufacturing) és un procés que construïx objectes sòlids tridimensionals mitjançant la superposició de materials basats en un model de disseny assistit per ordinador. L'AM està cridada a convertir-se en la pròxima revolució industrial, transformant el panorama del desenvolupament i la producció. L'AM oferix nombrosos avantatges, com a possibilitats de disseny complexes i flexibles, l'eliminació de processos intermedis com el mecanitzat, la independència dels costos de producció de la grandària dels lots, la reducció dels residus de material, les estructures lleugeres, les reparacions personalitzades de les màquines i la capacitat de desenvolupar nous materials, entre altres avantatges. En les tecnologies de fabricació additiva que empren un raig làser com a font d'energia, la matèria primera inicial (en forma de pols o filferro) és fosa per la font de calor làser de manera controlada, capa a capa, fins a crear un component amb dimensions finals o quasi finals. Estes tecnologies impliquen sotmetre el material imprés a un procés tèrmic únic, en el qual el material es funde en una àrea molt específica i després es refreda ràpidament a velocitats extremadament altes de fins a 10^6 K/s. Per tant, les microestructures que sorgixen dels processos de fabricació en AM diferixen significativament de les que s'aconseguixen en els processos tradicionals. A més, els materials que s'empren principalment en l'AM no s'han dissenyat explícitament per a estes tecnologies. Les característiques específiques dels processos d'AM poden utilitzar-se per a aconseguir microestructures i propietats diferents en acers que han sigut adaptats per a aprofitar les ràpides velocitats de refredament i la història tèrmica del procés, entre altres factors. De moment, el nombre de qualitats d'acer comercials disponibles en el mercat de l'AM és limitat. Diverses indústries demanden nous graus d'acer amb menor densitat per a disminuir el pes sense comprometre les propietats mecàniques. Els acers amb alt contingut en manganés es consideren materials molt prometedors per a aplicacions estructurals a causa de la seua excepcional combinació de resistència i ductilitat, amb una baixa densitat. No obstant això, malgrat les seues excepcionals propietats, els acers amb alt contingut en manganés s'enfronten a diverses limitacions o reptes durant les tècniques de processament convencionals. Afortunadament, la solidificació ràpida pot resoldre estos problemes. En este sentit, les tecnologies d'AM basades en làser proporcionen velocitats de refredament ràpides, així com flexibilitat en termes de disseny geomètric. Els nous reptes d'estes tecnologies implicaran la microsegregació i l'esquerdament en calent, o hot cracking en anglés, que es produïxen durant la solidificació. Esta tesi està dedicada a explotar el mètode CALPHAD per a realitzar càlculs termodinàmics amb la finalitat de dissenyar diversos acers amb alt contingut en manganés que puguen previndre eficaçment els problemes de solidificació ràpida en AM. Les composicions d'acer dissenyades es van produir en forma de pols per a AM mitjançant atomització amb gas. Es van analitzar les pólvores per a determinar la seua microestructura en relació amb la química i la velocitat de refredament. Ajustant adequadament els paràmetres d'impressió, estes pólvores d'acer amb alt contingut en manganés es van imprimir amb èxit en AM, donant lloc a densitats relatives superiors al 99.9%. Es va analitzar la microestructura d'estes mostres totalment denses i es va comparar amb les seues respectives pólvores, amb la finalitat d'identificar qualsevol diferència resultant de les variacions en la velocitat de refredament i els cicles tèrmics. Finalment, desprès de definir el millor conjunt de condicions d'impressió per a cada composició de pols, es van produir diverses mostres per a avaluar les propietats mecàniques. / [EN] Additive manufacturing (AM) is a process that builds three-dimensional solid objects by layering materials based on a computer-aided design model. AM is set to become the next industrial revolution, transforming the landscape of development and production. AM provides numerous benefits, including complex and flexible design possibilities, the elimination of intermediate processes like machining, production cost independence from batch size, reduced material waste, lightweight structures, customized machine repairs, and the ability to develop new materials, among other advantages. In additive manufacturing technologies that employ a laser beam as an energy source, the initial raw material (in the form of powder or wire) is melted by the laser heat source in a controlled manner, layer by layer, until a component with final or nearly final dimensions is created. These technologies involve subjecting the printed material to a unique thermal process, where the material is melted in a very specific area and then rapidly cooled at extremely high rates of up to 10^6 K/s. Hence, the microstructures that arise from the manufacturing processes in AM differ significantly from those achieved in traditional processes. Moreover, the materials predominantly employed in AM have not been explicitly designed for these technologies. The specific characteristics of AM processes can be utilized to achieve distinct microstructures and properties in steels that have been tailored to take advantage of the rapid cooling rates and thermal history of the process, among other factors. For the moment, the number of commercial steel grades available in the AM market is limited. Various industries are demanding new steel grades with lower density to decrease weight without compromising mechanical properties. High manganese steels are regarded as highly promising materials for structural applications due to their exceptional combination of strength and ductility, with low density. Nevertheless, despite the exceptional properties of high manganese steels, they encounter various limitations or challenges during conventional processing techniques. Fortunately, rapid solidification may solve these issues. In this sense, laser-based AM technologies provide rapid cooling rates, as well as flexibility in terms of geometric design. The new challenges of these technologies will involve micro-segregation and hot cracking occurring during solidification. This thesis is dedicated to exploiting the CALPHAD method to perform thermodynamic calculations in order to design various high manganese steels that can effectively prevent fast solidification issues in AM. The steel compositions designed were produced in the form of powder for AM using gas atomization. Powders were analyzed to determine their microstructure in relation to the chemistry and cooling rate. By adjusting properly, the printing parameters, these high manganese steel powders were successfully printed in AM, resulting in relative densities exceeding 99.9%. The microstructure of these fully dense samples was analyzed and compared to their respective powders, in order to identify any difference resulting from variations in cooling rate and thermal cycling. Lastly, after defining the best set of printing conditions for each powder composition, various samples were produced to evaluate the mechanical properties, to determine the correlation between the composition, microstructure and properties of these steels. In addition, lattice structures that are close to final part geometries were constructed to quantify the energy absorbed during compression by one of these high manganese steels. The results were then compared to those of 316L, revealing that the high manganese steel absorbs roughly twice as much the specific energy in compression. This finding demonstrates the potential of these novel AM steels for use in industrial applications. / Sánchez Poncela, M. (2024). Design of High Mn Fe-Mn-Al-C Low Density Steels for Additive Manufacturing [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/205174

<p dir="ltr">A current engineering challenge is to understand and validate material systems capable of maintaining structural viability under the elevated temperature and environmental conditions of hypersonic flight. One aspect of this challenge is the joining of multiple materials with thermal expansion mismatch, which can lead to residual stress, resulting in debits in component lifetime under in-service loading. The focus of this work is a series of studies focused on a ceramic-metal composite (WC/Cu), a zirconia coating applied to a carboncarbon (C/C) composite, and a silicide (R512E) coating applied to a Nb-based alloy (C103). Each of these material systems are candidates for elevated temperature applications in which dissimilar constituents result in residual stress in the material. Each study leveraged experimental residual strain measurements, with the primary focus on the use of synchrotron X-ray diffraction, in conjunction with representative models, and microscopy to illuminate the active mechanisms in the development and evolution of residual stress in the bulk material. The combination of experimental and modeling predictions provides a framework to inform the viability and lifing of material systems exhibiting dissimilar expansion properties.</p>