Quando o concreto é submetido a ações especiais, como cargas cíclicas ou ação de cargas de impacto, modificações em sua composição são necessárias, já que o concreto não apresenta desempenho satisfatório à tração, o que compromete o seu comportamento frente à ação de cargas dinâmicas. Uma alternativa para amenizar esta deficiência consiste em adicionar fibras ao concreto. Estas atuam como reforços à tração, transformando a matriz cimentícia, tipicamente frágil, em um material que apresenta boa resistência residual após a fissuração. Buscando colaborar na avaliação da eficiência de diferentes tipos de fibras, o presente trabalho analisa o comportamento de concretos com fibras de aço, submetidos ao impacto, avaliando a influência do fator de forma, do comprimento e do teor de fibras, assim como do tamanho do agregado. São ainda analisados os efeitos da incorporação de fibras na resistência à compressão, na resistência à tração por compressão diametral, no módulo de elasticidade e na tenacidade dos compósitos. Adicionalmente, é executada uma comparação entre os resultados experimentais e os derivados de um esquema de modelagem da situação de impacto através do uso do método de elementos discretos. Buscou-se, através da modelagem teórica, executar um mapeamento dos danos, provocados por cargas de impacto incrementais, ao longo do tempo, bem como determinar as energias necessárias para levar as placas até a ruptura. Os resultados indicam que a incorporação de fibras de aço não consegue retardar o aparecimento da primeira fissura, mas aumenta significativamente a tenacidade dos compósitos. Fibras mais longas e com maior fator de forma tendem a ser mais eficientes, desde que se supere um teor de fibras mínimo, que neste trabalho ficou em torno de 100.000 fibras/m3, para fibras longas (50-60 mm) e de 400.000 fibras/m3, para fibras curtas, cuja ancoragem é menos eficiente. O método de teste de impacto por queda de esfera se mostrou adequado e sensível, porém o esquema de modelagem numérica testado necessita ser refinado para permitir uma adequada simulação do comportamento de concretos com fibras. / When submitted to special loading patterns, derived from dynamical actions such as cyclic or impact loads, concrete elements need to be reinforced, in order to resist the tensile stresses. A feasible alternative, in such cases, is to incorporate fibers in the concrete matrix. The fibers act as a tensile reinforcement, transforming the fragile cement matrix into a composite with significant post-cracking residual strength. In order to contribute with the data collection about the efficiency of different fiber types, the present research work presents an analysis of the behavior of steel fiber reinforced concretes subjected to impact loads. The work investigates the influences of changes in the shape factor, length and amount of fibers. The effects of these combinations on other basic properties of the composites, such as compression strength, split cylinder tensile strength, Young’s modulus and tenacity is also measured. Additionally, a comparison is made between the experimental results from the impact tests and the estimates obtained from a theoretical model that uses the discrete element method (DEM). This theoretical approach aimed to determine if the model was able to simulate the damage evolution over time generated by the increasing impacts loads, as well as to determine the total energy necessary to crack and break the specimens. The results obtained pointed out that the introduction of steel fibers does not affect the energy for the first crack but increases significantly the tenacity of the composite. Longer fibers, with greater shape factors, tend to be more efficient, provided that the fiber content is sufficiently high. The minimum recommended fiber content, according to the data from this research, may be around 100.000 fibers/m3, for longer fibers (50-60 mm). Or around 400.000 fibers/m3, for shorter fibers, which are not so efficient in terms of anchorage. The impact test method developed was considered adequate, being sensitive to the phenomenon and providing reliable data. The DEM model, however, needs to be refined to be able to deal with fiber concrete composites.

Quando o concreto é submetido a carregamentos especiais, como cargas cíclicas ou ação de cargas de impacto, modificações em sua composição são necessárias. Uma vez que o material não apresenta desempenho satisfatório à tração, seu comportamento frente a este tipo de carregamento acaba seriamente comprometido. Uma alternativa para amenizar esta deficiência consiste em adicionar fibras de aço ao concreto. Ao adicionar estes elementos à matriz cimentícia, promove-se meios de transferência de tensões através das fissuras, aumentando a tenacidade do material, proporcionando mecanismos de absorção, relacionados com o desligamento e o arrancamento de fibras. Um número significativo de trabalhos experimentais envolvendo os mais diversos tipos de elementos estruturais reforçados com fibras de aço está disponível, havendo, no entanto, uma forte carência sob o ponto de vista de simulações numéricas. Buscando colaborar no desenvolvimento do material, o presente trabalho propõe a aplicação do Método dos Elementos Discretos para simulação do compósito submetido a carregamentos estáticos e dinâmicos. São realizadas alterações no algoritmo do método a fim de realizar a dispersão de fibras de aço na matriz de concreto. A análise das condições de contorno utilizadas em trabalho anterior revela a necessidade de aplicação de apoios elásticos sob pena de superestimar a rigidez do modelo. Os diagramas carga versus deslocamento que resultaram dos ensaios estáticos demonstram que o modelo criado é sensível à adição de fibras: maiores teores conduzem a modelos com maior tenacidade. O ensaio de impacto também se mostrou sensível e o padrão de fissuração encontrado nas simulações revelou uma boa aproximação com ensaios experimentais anteriores. / When submitted to special loading patterns, derived from dynamical actions such as cyclic or impact loads, some alterations in the concrete constitution need to be done, since the material don’t have an adequate behavior under tensile stress. A feasible alternative, in such cases, is to incorporate steel fibers in the concrete matrix. Adding these elements, stress transference mechanisms along the cracks are promoted, increasing the material tenacity. An expressive number of experimental works involving all the kinds of steel fiber reinforced concrete structural elements are available. However, few researches based on numerical methods are found in the literature. In order to contribute with the data collection and the development of the material, the present research work proposes the application of the Discrete Element Method to simulate the composite subjected to static and dynamic loads. Some modifications are made on the method algorithm trying to create the dispersion of fibers in the concrete matrix. The analysis of the boundary conditions used on previous work reveal the importance of using elastic support to don’t overestimate the stiffness of the model. The diagram load versus displacement that came from the static simulations shows that the model is sensible to the addition of fibers: higher proportions of fiber leads to models with higher tenacity. The impact tests also demonstrate sensibility and the crack pattern found on the simulations presented a very good approximation to previous experimental work.

A ruptura de materiais heterogêneos quase frágeis, como o concreto, as cerâmicas e diferentes tipos de rochas, tem um comportamento mecânico complexo, foco de estudo de pesquisadores já há muito tempo. Uma ferramenta para simular o comportamento até ruptura destes tipos de materiais são os métodos de elementos discretos formados por barras (Discrete Element Method - DEM). Neste método as massas são concentradas em pontos nodais que estão ligados por meio de elementos unidimensionais caracterizados por relações constitutivas uniaxiais simples. Neste contexto, realizam-se novas implementações na versão do DEM com o intuito de estudar diversos aspectos dos materiais quase frágeis. Os principais focos da tese estão na desvinculação do nível de discretização do modelo do comprimento de correlação dos campos aleatórios que caracterizam as propriedades mecânicas. Através da interpretação dos resultados na simulação de emissão acústica é possível conhecer melhor o processo de dano neste tipo de material. Testes experimentais preliminares também são apresentados. Também são realizadas simulações em DEM utilizando carregamento biaxial, onde é explorado nessas simulações o comportamento dos modelos sob a ótica da técnica de emissão acústica. / The rupture of heterogeneous materials quasi-fragile, like concrete, ceramics and different types of rocks have a complex mechanical behavior, which has been the focus of study by researchers for a long time. The truss-like Discrete Element Method (DEM) was used to perform numerical simulations of the testing processes. The test results and the results of the numerical analyses, in terms of load vs. time diagram and AE data, as determined through b-value. In this context, new implementations in the version of DEM were realized with the objective to study the aspects of quasi-fragile materials. The main focuses of the thesis are in untying the level of discretization of the model of the correlation length from random fields which characterize the mechanical properties. And, through the interpretation of the results in the simulation of the acoustic emission, it is possible to better understand the process of damage in this type of material. Are also performed in DEM the biaxial loading, where is explored in this simulations the behavior of models from the point of view of the acoustic emission technique.

Les modèles d'érosion et de transport couramment utilisés sont construits à partir de données empiriques obtenues avec des sédiments de granulométries quasi uniformes. Or, il y a beaucoup de situations pour lesquelles la granulométrie des sédiments n’est pas uniforme. Les expériences réalisées en laboratoire et dans les rivières montrent que l’érosion et le transport des sédiments dépendent de la dispersion du diamètre des grains. Cette observation est à l’origine de cette thèse qui a pour objectif l’étude de l’influence de la distribution du diamètre des grains sur le transport de sédiments. Cette influence est envisagée à partir du développement d’un modèle numérique. La prédiction de l’érosion et du transport de sédiments tient de la résolution de deux problèmes : le premier est lié à l’écoulement au dessus du lit, le second à la mise en mouvement du sédiment. Le modèle développé détermine explicitement le mouvement des grains dans le lit de sédiments lorsque sa face supérieure est soumise à un écoulement. Pour cela, il mobilise la Méthode des Eléments Discrets (DEM), développée par Cundall et Strack (1979). Afin de reproduire l’effet de la topographie du lit sur le champ de vitesse du fluide, le modèle DEM est couplé avec le modèle d’écoulement FLOWSTAR. Le modèle FLOWSTAR est proposé par Carruthers et al. (2004) pour déterminer l’écoulement moyen dans une couche limite turbulente atmosphérique au-dessus des collines de faible pente. Le modèle numérique développé est appliqué à différents types d’arrangements de grains. Il permet d’estimer l’évolution du débit de sédiments au cours du temps pour différentes vitesses de frottement. Les seuils d’érosion des lits et l’évolution des débits de sédiments en fonction de la vitesse de frottement sont conformes à l’expérience. L’utilisation de l’approche DEM permet par ailleurs de connaître le comportement des grains dans et à la surface du lit au cours du temps (profil vertical de la vitesse des grains à l’intérieur de l’arrangement par exemple) / The models for the erosion and transport of sediments that are currently used rely on empirical data obtained from experiments with sediments having a uniform or unimodal distribution. But there are many practical situations for which the size distribution is significantly different from this assumed distribution, and laboratory and field experiments have shown that the erosion threshold and the transport rate depend on the size distribution and the range of particle sizes. The aim of this study is therefore to investigate and explain the influence of size distribution on erosion and transport rates, using a numerical model that has been developed specifically to study this problem. The sediment bed is assumed to consist of individual, non-cohesive, spherical particles, and the physical interactions between the particles are modelled explicitly, using the Discrete Element Method developed by Cundall and Strack (1979). The flow above the bed is computed using the FLOWSTAR model (Carruthers et al 2000) which was originally developed to compute the flow in the atmospheric boundary layer above arbitrary topography. These two models are coupled, and the resulting numerical code has been used to investigate the temporal evolution of erosion and transport rates agree well with experimental measurements, and the DEM provides additional information concerning the temporal evolution of the particle size distribution within the bed.

Le matériau composite carbone/carbone ou C/C est utilisé en temps que matériau de friction en freinage aéronautique. Matériau complexe tant du point de vue de sa description microstructurale que de son comportement sous sollicitations tribologiques, il a été l’objet de nombreuses études visant à mieux comprendre les mécanismes régissant sa réponse (frottement, endommagement, usure) à ces sollicitations. Dans cette étude nous nous focalisons sur l’aspect mécanique de cette réponse. En particulier, nous nous intéressons aux endommagements présents dans le matériau : nous souhaitons étudier tant leurs origines que leur influence sur le comportement du matériau. Pour cela, nous choisissons une approche combinée numérique et expérimentale, nous permettant d’identifier de façon exhaustive ces endommagements puis de construire un modèle numérique tribologique permettant d’étudier les mécanismes d’usure du matériau. Nous montrons comment les mécanismes d’accommodation en volume du 1er corps influent sur les détachements de particules en surface, nous conduisant à parler de dialogue tribologique surface/volume. Le modèle numérique utilise la méthode des éléments discrets pour représenter 1er et 3ième corps simultanément. Un travail est réalisé autour de la représentativité du modèle vis-à-vis des caractéristiques mécaniques du composite C/C. Nous proposons également une démarche de recherche d’un Volume Elémentaire Représentatif sous condition de contact. Ce modèle ainsi que les observations du matériau nous permettent de proposer un scenario de comportement tribologique du composite C/C, en fonction des sollicitations thermomécaniques qui lui sont appliquées et correspondant aux différents types de freinages aéronautiques. Les endommagements identifiés dans le volume du matériau se révèlent être bénéfiques dans certains cas de figure au travers d’un mécanisme de rigidification du matériau intervenant à haute température, ce qui nous conduit à parler d’ « endommagement utile ». Le scenario intègre donc ce phénomène, ainsi que d’autres tant mécaniques que physicochimiques et identifiés par cette étude ou dans la littérature, et montre comment leur équilibre « dynamique » produit le comportement tribologique identifié du matériau pour les différentes gammes de sollicitations qui lui sont appliquées. / Carbon/Carbon (or C/C) composite is used as a friction material in aeronautical braking applications. This is a complex material from both microstructural and tribological behavior points of view. Thus, it has been studied through various works for several years, aiming at understanding what mechanisms guide this material response (friction, damage, wear) under tribological conditions. In this study, a focus is performed on mechanical aspects such as damages that occur in the numerical and experimental approach, in view to identify and classify the damages as well as to build a numerical model used to investigate wear mechanisms. It is underlined how first-body accommodation mechanisms have a great influence on particles detachment at the interface, as a surface/volume tribological dialogue take place. This model is based on the Discrete Elements method and represents simultaneously first- and third-body; such model is able to represent fist-body degradation as well as creation and flow of third-body particles. Its representativeness is ensured through experimental comparisons, particularly on mechanical aspects. A procedure is proposed for the research of a Representative Elementary Volume under contact conditions. Model results and material observations allow proposing a global scenario explaining C/C composite behavior under tribological conditions, which are representative of different aeronautical braking cases. Damages, identified in the volume of the first-body, reveal themselves to be sometimes beneficial, and could be characterized as “useful damages”. The scenario takes into account this phenomenon, as well as thermal, mechanical and physicochemical ones, identified from this work or literature. It explains the influences of these parameters on C/C tribology and show how the dynamic equilibrium between them results on the C/C response, particularly its wear mechanism.

Le travail présenté dans ce mémoire de thèse porte sur la modélisation discrète de l’évolution régressive du front d’un conduit d’érosion qui peut se produire dans les barrages ou digues en remblai. Des outils numériques ont été développés en se basant sur le couplage entre la méthode des éléments discrets (DEM) et la méthode de Boltzmann sur réseau (LBM) pour la description, respectivement, des phases solide et fluide. L’implémentation de la méthode DEM suit une approche standard de type dynamique moléculaire (DM) et les interactions intergranulaires sont modélisées par des contacts unilatéraux visco-élastiques frottants ou bilatéraux (ponts solides) viscoélastiques, afin de permettre la modélisation d’un sol légèrement cohésif. La méthode LBM est implémentée ici avec des temps de relaxation multiples (MRT) et une condition de rebondissement interpolée pour les frontières solides en mouvement, afin d’améliorer la stabilité numérique des calculs. Le schéma du couplage entre les deux méthodes, ainsi que les critères pour le choix des paramètres numériques des deux méthodes. Pour étudier le phénomène visé, un échantillon représentatif de sol granulaire situé au front d’un conduit d’érosion est d’abord assemblé par une procédure de préparation “à sec”, puis testé dans des conditions saturées sous un chargement hydraulique monotone croissant. L’érosion régressive se produit par amas de grains au niveau du front d’érosion ayant subi au préalable une dégradation due à de nombreuses ruptures de ponts solides en traction. L’autre phénomène important observé est la présence d’arcs associés a` des chaines de forces en compression qui parviennent à maintenir parfois totalement, parfois partiellement l’intégrité du matériau non érodé. / The work reported in this thesis consists in a discrete modelling of the backward front propagation of an erosion pipe, as can take place in embankment dams or dikes. Some numerical tools have been developed to this end, based on the coupling between the Discrete Element Method (DEM) and the Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) for the representation of the solid and uid phases, respectively. The implementation of DEM follows a standard molecular dynamics approach and the interaction among grains are regulated by unilteral frictional visco-elastic and breakable visco-elastic bonds, in order to take into account a slightly cohesive soil behaviour. The LBM was implemented according to the Multiple Relaxation Time (MRT) scheme along with an interpolated non-slip conditions for moving boundaries, in order to improve the numerical stability of the calculations. The coupling scheme is described along with the criteria for the numerical parameters of the two methods. A representative specimen of a granular soil located at the front of an erosion pipe is first assembled by a \dry" preparation precedure and then tested under fully-saturated conditions and increasing hydraulic load over time. Backward erosion is takes place in the form of clusters of grain being eroded at the erosion front after a degradation of the material due to the breakage of tensile bonds. The other interesting feature that was observed is the creation of arches of compressive force chains. These arches enabled the specimen to maintain a stable or metastable configuration under the increasing hydraulic load.

Les enrobés bitumineux ont été utilisés habituellement dans des constructions routières et récemment sous les ballasts des ferroviaires. Sa grande rigidité aux températures relativement basses de l’ambiance et à haute fréquence explique son application répandue en Europe du nord. Ce matériau a été étudié au niveau global par à la fois des essais empiriques, expérimentaux et des approches analytiques. Pourtant, l’enrobé bitumineux possède un structure interne hétérogène et complexe qui peut-être engendrer des comportements complexe. Les analyses au niveau local permettent alors de compléter les connaissances de ses comportements.De nos jours, la méthode des éléments discrets est connue comme un outil numérique répandu dans le domaine granulaire. Elle peut modéliser son comportement à travers des modèles locaux et fournir des informations de sa structure interne. Une part, cette méthode considère que les particules sont quasi-solides. Son déplacement est régi par les lois de mouvement. L’autre part, le chevauchement au niveau de contact entre particules est admis. L’interpénétration des particules est calculée par les lois de contact locaux associées. Cette thèse constitue une maquette numérique des enrobés bitumineux dont les particules isolées s’interagissent à travers des lois d’interaction à distance. Cette maquette prend en compte la granulométrie des granulats (>1mm) et son rapport volumique vis-à-vis du mastic constitué par des grains (<1mm), le liant et des vides. Les granulats (>1mm) seuls sont modélisés par des particules numériques, tandis que du mastic est pris en compte par des lois d’interaction. Au premier lieu, une simulation élastique est réalisée afin de reproduire des comportements asymptotiques élastiques d’un enrobé bitumineux de référence de type GB3 qui apparaissent lors des conditions extrêmes (fréquence ou température). Des lois d’interaction élastiques ont appliqué à la maquette numérique créée. Sur deux directions normale et tangentielles, les raideurs du ressort et leur rapport sont constantes.Ensuite, les simulations viscoélastiques sont réalisées pour reproduire le comportement viscoélastique du même matériau de référence. Au premier temps, une loi d’interaction de type Kelvin-Voigt est utilisée pour mettre en évidence qualitativement l’application d’une loi viscoélastique. Ensuite, le comportement viscoélastique globale est modélisé à niveau des particules par quelques lois d’interaction de type 1KV1R (un Kelvin-Voigt et un ressort en série) repartant au réseau d’interaction de la maquette numérique. Les raideurs des ressorts prenant en compte la géométrie de l’interface de particules sont constantes pour toutes les modèle de 1KV1R. Cependant, des viscosités des amortisseurs sont différentes. Certaines hypothèses sont examinées pour distribuer ses viscosités dans le réseau d’interaction. A la fin des études, les analyses des efforts internes sont réalisées. / Bituminous mixtures have traditionally been used in road constructions and recently under railway ballast. Its high rigidity at relatively low ambient temperatures and high frequency explains its widespread application in northern Europe. This material has been studied at the global level by both empirical, experimental and analytical approaches. However, the asphalt has a heterogeneous internal structure and complex which may cause complex behavior. The analysis at the local level then make it possible to supplement the knowledge of its behaviors.Nowadays, the method of discrete elements is known as a numerical tool spread in the granular field. It can model its behavior through local models and provide information about its internal structure. On the one hand, this method considers that the particles are quasi-solid. Its displacement is governed by the laws of motion. On the other hand, the overlap at the particle contact level is allowed. The interpenetration of the particles is calculated by the associated local contact laws. This thesis constitutes a numerical model of bituminous mixes whose isolated particles interact through laws of interaction at a distance. This model takes into account the granulometry of the aggregates (> 1 mm) and its volume ratio with respect to the mastic constituted by grains (<1 mm), the binder and voids. The aggregates (> 1 mm) alone are modeled by numerical particles, while mastic is taken into account by laws of interaction.First, an elastic simulation is performed in order to reproduce the elastic asymptotic behaviors of a reference bituminous mix of GB3 type that appear during extreme conditions (frequency or temperature). Elastic interaction laws have applied to the created numerical model. In both normal and tangential directions, the stiffness of the spring and its ratio are constant.Then, the viscoelastic simulations are performed to reproduce the viscoelastic behavior of the same reference material. At first, a Kelvin-Voigt interaction law is used to qualitatively highlight the application of a viscoelastic law. Then, the global viscoelastic behavior is modeled at the level of the particles by some laws of interaction of type 1KV1R (a Kelvin-Voigt and a spring in series) leaving again to the network of interaction of the numerical model. The stiffness of the springs taking into account the geometry of the particle interface is constant for all models of 1KV1R. However, the viscosities of the dashpots are different. Some hypotheses are examined to distribute its viscosities in the interaction network. At the end of the studies, the analysis of the internal efforts are carried out.

In der vorliegenden Dissertation wird ein Simulationsmodell für die Diskrete Elemente Methode vorgestellt, das in der Lage ist, das Materialverhalten während des Mischprozesses von Frischbeton nachzubilden. Zur realitätsnahen Abbildung des Materialverhaltens während des gesamten Mischprozesses ist zum einen die korrekte, prozessabhängige Modellierung der Feuchtigkeitsverteilung im Mischgut notwendig. Zum anderen definiert sich das lokale Materialverhalten durch den aktuellen Feuchtegrad und die Materialzusammensetzung der Mischung und muss im Simulationsmodell Berücksichtigung finden. Zur korrekten Modellierung der Feuchteverteilung wurde der Flüssigkeitstransfer zwischen unterschiedlich feuchten Kontaktpartnern (Partikeln) im Simulationsmodell realisiert. Der Flüssigkeitstransfer ist dabei abhängig vom Feuchtegrad der beiden Kontaktpartner, ihrer relativen Positionierung zueinander und der Viskosität der zu transferierenden Flüssigkeit. Zudem spielt die Partikelgröße eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Flüssigkeitsaufnahmefähigkeit eines Partikels und bei der Geschwindigkeit des Flüssigkeitstransfers. Zur Repräsentation des Flüssigkeitsanteils aller Partikel im Simulationsmodell erhält jedes Partikel eine zusätzliche Partikelvariable. Feuchte Feststoffpartikel lassen sich somit als zweischichtige Partikel repräsentieren, die eine äußere Flüssigkeitsschicht und einen inneren Feststoffkern besitzen. Die Modellierung des Materialverhaltens basiert auf einer Unterteilung in drei verschiedene Kraftkomponenten, die in Abhängigkeit der lokalen Feuchtegrade Anwendung finden. Die erste Kraftkomponente umfasst Reibungs-, Dämpfungs- und Federkräfte, die bei trockenen Feststoffkontakten zum Einsatz kommen. Die zweite Kraftkomponente besteht aus zusätzlichen Flüssigkeitsbrückenkräften, die bei leicht angefeuchteten Materialien wirken. Die Flüssigkeitsbrückenkräfte sind abhängig von Flüssigkeitsvolumen, Flüssigkeitszusammensetzung, Partikelgröße und Abstand der Kontaktpartner. Die dritte Kraftkomponente umfasst die viskosen Kräfte, die bedingt durch die Flüssigkeitsschichten zwischen den Kontaktpartnern auftreten. Die viskosen Kräfte in Tangentialrichtung basieren auf dem Bingham-Modell, das häufig für zementgebundene Suspensionen eingesetzt wird. Die Anwendung des Bingham-Modells setzt die Kenntnis der rheologischen Kenngrößen Fließgrenze und plastische Viskosität voraus, die aus der lokalen Zusammensetzung der Flüssigkeitsschicht approximiert werden müssen. Die Grundlage für diese Approximation bilden sowohl Modelle aus der Literatur als auch experimentelle Untersuchungen, die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durchgeführt wurden. Auch die Definitionen der materialabhängigen Flüssigkeitsaufnahmemengen und -geschwindigkeit sowie die Berechnung der zustandsabhängigen Flüssigkeitsbrückenkräfte basieren auf theoretischen Modellen und experimentellen Untersuchungen. Die Experimente sollen die entsprechenden theoretischen Modelle stützen, die materialspezifischen Modellparameter bestimmen und zusätzliche Daten außerhalb des Gültigkeitsbereichs der Modelle liefern. Alle Einzelaspekte der Flüssigkeitsaufnahme, des -transfers und des feuchteabhängigen Materialverhaltens werden in der Simulation implementiert und anhand der Nachbildung der Experimente überprüft. Das Zusammenspiel aller Modellaspekte wird anhand der Simulation eines experimentell durchgeführten Betonmischprozesses in einem Zwangsmischer für zwei Rezepturen mit unterschiedlichen w/z-Werten ohne Verwendung von Zusatzstoffen und -mitteln validiert. Während des Mischprozesses wurde die Leistungsaufnahme des Mischers erfasst und mit der aus dem Drehmoment abgeleiteten Leistungsausnahme aus der Simulation verglichen. Dabei zeigte sich eine gute qualitative Übereinstimmung des zeitlichen Leistungsverlaufs, der das realistische Durchlaufen der verschiedenen Phasen der Materialzustände widerspiegelt. Als zusätzliches Vergleichskriterium wurde nach dem Mischprozess das Setz- bzw. Setzfließmaß ermittelt. Auch hier zeigte sich eine gute qualitative Übereinstimmung zwischen Experiment und Simulation. Damit konnte die grundsätzliche Anwendbarkeit des Modells zur Nachbildung des Materialverhaltens während des Frischbetonmischprozesses anhand einer ausgewählten Betonrezeptur demonstriert werden. / In this thesis a simulation model for the Discrete Element Method is presented, which is capable to simulate the material behavior during the mixing process of fresh concrete. For the realistic modeling of the material behavior during the entire mixing process two major aspects have to be integrated in the model. On the one hand the correct, process-dependent representation of the moisture distribution within the mix is necessary. Second, the local material behavior defined by the current degree of humidity and the mix composition must be taken into account in the simulation model. For a correct simulation of the humidity distribution representation the fluid transfers between different wet contact partners (particles) was realized in the contact model. The fluid transfer is dependent on the moisture level of the two contact partners, their relative positioning to each other and the viscosity of the liquid to be transferred. In addition, the particle size plays a crucial role in the water absorption capacity of a particle and in the water transfer velocity. For the representation of the liquid content of each particle, all particles in the simulation model have an additional particle variable. Wetted solid particles can thus be represented as two-layered particles having an outer liquid layer and an inner solid core. The modeling of the material behavior is based on a subdivision into three different force components, which are applied dependent on the local moisture degree. The first force component comprises friction, damping and spring forces, which are used in dry solid contacts. The second force component consists of additional liquid bridge forces acting in weakly wetted materials. The liquid bridge forces are defined as a function of liquid volume, liquid composition, particle size and the distance of the contact partners. The third force component covers the viscous forces that occur due to the fluid layers between the contact partners. The viscous forces in the tangential direction are based on the Bingham model, which is commonly used for cementitious suspensions. The application of the Bingham model assumes knowledge of the rheological parameters yield stress and plastic viscosity, which need to be approximated from the local composition of the liquid layer. The basis of this approximation is provided by models of literature and experimental investigations that have been carried out in this work. Also, the definitions of the material-dependent fluid absorption volume and the liquid transfer velocity as well as the computation of the state-dependent liquid bridge forces are based on theoretical models and experimental studies. Experiments are supposed to support the relevant theoretical models, determine the material-specific model parameters and provide additional information outside the scope of the models. All aspects of the fluid absorption, fluid transfer and the moisture-dependent material behavior are implemented in the simulation and verified by the remodeling of the experiments. The interplay of all aspects of the model is validated by the simulation of an experimentally investigated concrete mixing process in a compulsory mixer for two concrete recipes with different w/c ratios without using additives and admixtures. During the mixing process the power consumption of the mixer was recorded and compared with the approximated power consumption in the simulation, deduced from the torque data. Thereby a good qualitative agreement of the power curve was achieved, which reflects a realistic pass through the various phases of the material states during the mixing process. As an additional comparison criterion the slump or the slump flow was determined after the mixing process. Again, a good qualitative agreement between experiment and simulation was achieved. Thus the basic applicability of the model to simulate the material behavior during the fresh concrete mixing process is demonstrated using a selected concrete mix.

Two new three-dimensional rock mass strength criteria are developed in this dissertation by extending an existing rock mass strength criterion. These criteria incorporate the effects of the intermediate principal stress, minimum principal stress and the anisotropy resulting from these stresses acting on the fracture system. In addition, these criteria have the capability of capturing the anisotropic and scale dependent behavior of the jointed rock mass strength by incorporating the effect of fracture geometry through the fracture tensor components. Another significant feature of the new rock mass strength criterion which has the exponential functions (equation 6.7) is having only four empirical coefficients compared to the existing strength criterion which has five empirical coefficients; if the joint sets have the same isotropic mechanical behavior, the number of the empirical coefficients reduces to two in this new strength criterion (equation 6.10). The new criteria were proposed after analyzing 452 numerical modeling results of the triaxial, polyaxial and biaxial compression tests conducted on the jointed rock blocks having one or two joint sets by the PFC3D software version 5. In this research to have several samples with the same properties a synthetic rock material that is made out of a mixture of gypsum, sand and water was used. In total, 20 joint systems were chosen and joint sets have different dip angles varying from 15 to 60 at an interval of 15 with dip directions of 30 and 75 for the two joint sets. Each joint set also has 3 persistent joints with the joint spacing of 42 mm in a cubic sample of size 160 mm and the joints have the same isotropic mechanical behavior. The confining stress combination values were chosen based on the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) value of the modeled intact synthetic rock. The minimum principal stress values were chosen as 0, 20, 40 and 60 percent of the UCS. For each minimum principal stress value, the intermediate principal stress value varies starting at the minimum principal stress value and increasing at an interval of 20 percent of the UCS until it is lower than the strength of the sample under the biaxial loading condition with the same minimum principal stress value. The new rock mass failure criteria were developed from the PFC3D modeling data. However, since the joint sets having the dip angle of 60 intersect the top and bottom boundaries of the sample simultaneously, the joint systems with at least one of the joint sets having the dip angle of 60 were removed from the database. Thus, 284 data points from 12 joint systems were used to find the best values of the empirical coefficients for the new rock mass strength criteria. λ, p and q were found to be 0.675, 3.16 and 0.6, respectively, through a conducted grid analysis with a high R2 (coefficient of determination) value of 0.94 for the new criterion given by equation 6.9 and a and b were found to be 0.404 and 0.972, respectively, through a conducted grid analysis with a high R2 value of 0.92 for the new criterion given by equation 6.10. The research results clearly illustrate how increase of the minimum and intermediate principal stresses and decrease of the joint dip angle, increase the jointed rock block strength. This dissertation also illustrates how different confining stress combinations and joint set dip angles result in different jointed rock mass failure modes such as sliding on the joints, failure through the intact rock and a combination of the intact rock and joint failures. To express the new rock mass strength failure criteria, it was necessary to determine the intact rock strengths under the same confining stress combinations mentioned earlier. Therefore, the intact rock was also modeled for all three compression tests and the intact rock strengths were found for 33 different confining stress combinations. Suitability of six major intact rock failure criteria: Mohr-Coulomb, Hoek-Brown, Modified Lade, Modified Wiebols and Cook, Mogi and Drucker-Prager in representing the intact rock strength was examined through fitting them using the aforementioned 33 PFC3D data points. Among these criteria, Modified Lade, Modified Mogi with power function and Modified Wiebols and Cook were found to be the best failure criteria producing lower Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) values of 0.272, 0.301 and 0.307, respectively. Thus, these three failure criteria are recommended for the prediction of the intact rock strength under the polyaxial stress condition. In PFC unlike the other methods, macro mechanical parameters are not directly used in the model and micro mechanical parameter values applicable between the particles should be calibrated using the macro mechanical properties. Accurate calibration is a difficult or challenging task. This dissertation emphasized the importance of studying the effects of all micro parameter values on the macro mechanical properties before one goes through calibration of the micro parameters in PFC modeling. Important effects of two micro parameters, which have received very little attention, the particle size distribution and the cov of the normal and shear strengths, on the macro properties are clearly illustrated before conducting the said calibration. The intact rock macro mechanical parameter values for the Young’s modulus, uniaxial compression strength (UCS), internal friction angle, cohesion and Poisson's ratio were found by performing 3 uniaxial tests, 3 triaxial tests and 5 Brazilian tests on a synthetic material made out of a mixture of gypsum, sand and water and the joint macro mechanical parameter values were found by conducting 4 uniaxial compression tests and 4 direct shear tests on jointed synthetic rocks with a horizontal joint. Then the micro mechanical properties of the Linear Parallel Bond Model (LPMB) and Modified Smooth Joint Contact Model (MSJCM) were calibrated to represent the intact rock and joints respectively, through the specific procedures explained in this research. The similar results obtained between the 2 polyaxial experiments tests of the intact rock and 11 polyaxial experimental tests of the jointed rock blocks having one joint set and the numerical modeling verified the calibrated micro mechanical properties and further modification of these properties was not necessary. This dissertation also proposes a modification to the Smooth Joint Contact Model (SJCM) to overcome the shortcoming of the SJCM to capture the non-linear behavior of the joint closure varying with the joint normal stress. Modified Smooth Joint Contact Model (MSJCM) uses a linear relation between the joint normal stiffness and the normal contact stress to model the non-linear relation between the joint normal deformation and the joint normal stress observed in the compression joint normal stiffness test. A good agreement obtained between the results from the experimental tests and the numerical modeling of the compression joint normal test shows the accuracy of this new model. Moreover, another shortcoming associated with the SJCM application known as the interlocking problem was solved through this research by proposing a new joint contact implementation algorithm called joint sides checking (JSC) approach. The interlocking problem occurs due to a shortcoming of the updating procedure in the PFC software related to the contact conditions of the particles that lie around the intended joint plane during high shear displacements. This problem increases the joint strength and dilation angle and creates unwanted fractures around the intended joint plane.

The Discrete Element Method (DEM) provides an approach to recognition of the problems within bottle conveyors at an early stage of the engineering process. Key points in bottle conveyor systems, such as buffers, ejectors, diverters and transfers can be numerically analyzed. It is possible to calculate forces on lateral guides and forces between bottles within accumulation situations. The DEM provides an alternative opportunity for the virtual process optimization and numeric case studies of conveying systems at beverage and food industries. / Die diskrete Elementmethode (DEM) ermöglicht in einem frühen Stadium des Engineering-Prozesses die Erkennung von Problemen in Flaschenförderern. Wichtige Systemelemente wie Puffer, Ausschleuser, Weichen und Übergabestellen können numerisch analysiert werden. Es ist somit u. a. möglich, Kräfte auf Seitenführungen und Kräfte zwischen den Flaschen innerhalb von Stausituationen zu berechnen. Die DEM bietet eine alternative Möglichkeit für die virtuelle Prozessoptimierung und die Durchführung numerischer Fallstudien von Fördersystemen u. a. in der Getränke- und Lebensmittelindustrie.