Cette étude porte sur l'influence de la forme des particules sur le comportementmécanique des matériaux granulaires, et les mécanismes de transfert de charge quis'y développent, notamment dans les cas des conduits enterrés. La géométrie desparticules (polygones de forme convexe ou assemblage de particules de forme concaveconstitués de plusieurs disques superposés et indissociables) a été caractérisée par uncoefficient de forme α. Cette étude est basée sur une approche numérique par élémentsdiscrets. Des simulations numériques de l'essai de compression biaxiale montrent queles caractéristiques macroscopiques ou géométriques de l'échantillon granulaire, telque l'angle de frottement macroscopique, la compacité, ou la nature des bandes decisaillement, dépendent fortement du coefficient de forme α et de la convexité ou nonconvexité des grains.Les mécanismes de transfert de charge au dessus d'un conduit souple ont été étudiésexpérimentalement (rouleaux bidimensionnels en condition de déformation plane) etnumériquement (MED). Les expérimentations réalisées montrent que la présence duconduit à peu d'in_uence sur le comportement macroscopique de l'assemblée granulairelors d'une sollicitation biaxiale. Les résultats du modèle numèrique convergentavec les rèsultats expérimentaux et mettent en évidence la présence des mécanismes detransfert de charge au dessus du conduit dont les intensités dépendent du coefficientde forme α. / This study was devoted to the in_uence of grain shape on the mechanical behaviourof granular materials and its e_ect on load transfer over underground pipes. Shapeof convex polygons and concave clumps of discs was generalised with a geometricalparameter α. In the study a Discrete Element Modeling (DEM) approach was used.Biaxial compression of granular assemblies revealed that mechanical and geometricalproperties like porosity, macroscopic friction or shear localisation depends both on αand on grain (non-)convexity.The intergranular load transfer over a _exible pipe was studied both experimentally(2D rods in a plain strain apparatus) and numerically (DEM). The experimentsshowed that the pipe has no signi_cant impact on the macroscopic behaviour of theassembly. The numerical model complied with the experiments and revealed that thearching e_ect in a sheared granular medium exists above the pipe and is magni_edwith the increase of α of the grains.

Les condensateurs multicouches en céramique (Multilayer Ceramic Capacitors, MLCCs) sont des composants passifs clés de l'électronique moderne. Les MLCCs sont constitués d'une alternance d'électrodes métalliques et de couches diélectriques de céramique. Les puces ultraminces sont composées de mélanges de couches micrométriques métalliques et céramiques et d'additifs de céramique de taille nano. Un certain nombre de défauts tels que des fissures, des délaminations des couches et des discontinuités au sein de l'électrode, peuvent survenir dans la fabrication de ces MLCCs ultraminces. Un dispositif expérimental à rayons X (TXM, Transmission X-ray Microscope) avec une résolution spatiale de 30 nm au synchrotron APS (Advanced Photon Source, USA) a été utilisé pour caractériser un volume cylindrique représentatif de Ø 20 µm × 20 µm extrait d'une puce 0603 (1,6 mm × 0,8 mm) au nickel (Ni) + titanate de baryum (BaTiO3, ou BT) avant et après frittage sous argon hydrogéné (2%). La tomographie 3D de la microstructure montre que les discontinuités de l'électrode finale sont liées à des hétérogénéités initiales dans les couches d'électrodes. La radiographie in-situ aux rayons X pendant le frittage (vitesse de chauffage de 10 °C/mn, température de maintien à 1200 °C pendant 1 heure, puis refroidissement à 15 oC/min) d’un volume représentatif d'électrode au palladium (+ baryum-néodyme-titanate) confirme bien que les discontinuités dans l'électrode proviennent de l'hétérogénéité initiale de la poudre, qui est lié à la nature du compactage d'un matériau particulaire. La discontinuité se produit à l'étape précoce du cycle de frittage. A ce stade, l'électrode métallique commence à fritter tandis que le matériau diélectrique peut être considéré comme un substrat inerte qui contraint le frittage de l’électrode.Des études corrélatives utilisant un FIB-SEM (Focused Ion Beam Scanning Electron-microscopie) en tomographie à haute résolution (5 × 5 × 5 nm3) ont été effectuées sur des échantillons MLCC à vert et frittés. Elles confirment que la résolution de la nanotomographie X est suffisante pour étudier l’évolution des hétérogénéités. Cependant la tomographie par FIB permet à la nanotomographie X d’être réinterprétée avec plus de précision. D'autre part, le FIB fournit les paramètres des particules pour les simulations DEM.La méthode des éléments discrets (DEM) a été utilisée pour simuler la microstructure du système multicouche lors du frittage. Tout d'abord, le frittage de la matrice de nickel avec inclusions BT a été simulé en utilisant le code dp3D. Nous avons pu montrer que la vitesse de densification de la matrice diminue avec l'augmentation la fraction volumique d'inclusions et avec la diminution de la taille des inclusions. Pour une fraction volumique donnée, et une taille d’inclusions donnée, une meilleure dispersion des inclusions conduit à un retard plus marqué de la densification du frittage de la matrice de nickel.Le co-frittage de multicouches de BT/Ni/BT a été simulé en tenant compte des informations collectées à partir de la tomographie FIB-SEM à résolution élevée (taille des particules, distribution de taille, hétérogénéités, et pores). On constate que les discontinuités d'électrodes proviennent des hétérogénéités initiales dans le comprimé à vert et se forment au début de frittage sous contrainte. Ces résultats de simulation sont en bonne correspondance avec les observations expérimentales. Une étude paramétrique indique que les discontinuités d'électrodes peuvent être minimisées par l'homogénéisation de la compacité, par l’augmentation de l'épaisseur des électrodes et par l’utilisation d’un chauffage rapide.A partir des résultats expérimentaux et des simulations DEM, une conclusion générale peut être avancée: la discontinuité finale provient de l'hétérogénéité initiale dans les couches d'électrodes et survient à un stade précoce de frittage lorsque les couches diélectriques contraignent les couches d'électrodes / Multi-Layer Ceramic Capacitors (MLCCs) are key passive components in modern electronics. MLCCs consist of alternating metal electrode and ceramic dielectrics layers. In ultrathin MLCC chips, the micrometric layers are composed of submicrometric metal and ceramic powders and nano sized ceramic additives. A number of defects such as cracks, delamination of layers and electrode discontinuity and homogeneity, may arise in the processing of these ultrathin MLCCs. Synchrotron (Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, IL, USA) X-ray based Transmission X-ray Microscope (TXM) with spatial resolution of 30 nm was used to characterize a representative cylindrical volume of Ø 20 µm × 20 µm extracted from a 0603 (1.6 mm×0.8 mm) case size Nickel (Ni)-electrode Barium Titanate (BaTiO3, or BT)-based MLCC before and after sintering under 2H2%+Ar atmosphere. 3D tomographic microstructure imaging shows that the final electrode discontinuity is linked to the initial heterogeneity in the electrode layers. In situ X-ray radiography of sintering (heating ramp of 10 oC, holding at 1200 oC for 1 hour, cooling ramp -15 oC) of a Palladium (Pd) electrode BNT (Barium-neodymium-titanate) based MLCC representative volume was also carried out. It confirmed that discontinuities in the electrode originate from the initial heterogeneities, which are linked to the very particulate nature of the powder material. The discontinuity occurs at the early stage of the sintering cycle. At this stage, the electrode starts to sinter while the dielectric material may be considered as a constraining substrate. Correlative studies using Focused Ion Beam - Scanning Electron Microscope (FIB - SEM) tomography were conducted on green and sintered MLCC samples at high resolution (5 × 5 × 5 nm3). FIB images confirmed that the resolution of the X-ray nCT is sufficient to deal with these heterogeneity evolutions. Still, FIB tomography allows the X-ray nCT to be re-interpreted more accurately. Also, it provides detailed particulate parameters for the DEM simulations.The DEM was used to simulate the microstructure of a multilayer system during sintering. First, the sintering of Nickel matrix with BT inclusions was simulated using the dp3D codes. It is found that the densification rate of the matrix decreases with increasing volume fraction of inclusions and with decreasing size of inclusions. For a given volume fraction and size of inclusions, a better dispersion of the inclusions results in a stronger retardation of the densification kinetics of the nickel matrix.Co-sintering of BT/Ni/BT multilayers was simulated with DEM by taking into account the particulate nature collected from the high resolution FIB nanotomography (FIB-nT) data, such as particle size, size distribution, heterogeneities, pores, and geometry. It is found that the electrode discontinuities originate from the initial heterogeneities in the green compact and form at the early stage of sintering under constraint, in good correspondence to the experimental observations. Parametric studies suggest that electrode discontinuities can be minimized by homogenizing the packing density and thickness of the electrodes and using a fast heating rate.Based on both experimental and DEM simulation results, a general conclusion is reached: the final discontinuity originates from the initial heterogeneity in the electrode layers and occurs at the early stage of sintering when the dielectric layers constrain the electrode layers.

Submitted by Kilvya Braga (kilvyabraga@hotmail.com) on 2018-04-23T14:56:43Z No. of bitstreams: 1 WLADMIR JOSÉ GOMES FLORÊNCIO - DISSERTAÇÃO (PPGEM) 2015.pdf: 4800490 bytes, checksum: f2bc5fbc0347cf5ae8fcd0816a8c0697 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-04-23T14:56:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 WLADMIR JOSÉ GOMES FLORÊNCIO - DISSERTAÇÃO (PPGEM) 2015.pdf: 4800490 bytes, checksum: f2bc5fbc0347cf5ae8fcd0816a8c0697 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-06-19 / CNPq / Estudou-se a dinâmica do processo de moagem, analisando o movimento da carga de um moinho de bolas em escala de laboratório, a partir de ensaios realizados e a partir da simulação utilizando-se o Método dos Elementos Discretos (MED). Uma adaptação do sistema de transmissão mecânico, do moinho, foi feita com o objetivo de variar a velocidade de rotação entre: 57%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75% e 80% da velocidade crítica (NC). Ensaios de peneiramento, sem moagem e com moagem, variando o percentual de velocidade crítica do moinho, foram realizados. Com isso estabeleceu-se um ponto de corte de referência na peneira de malha (+30#), cujo objetivo foi determinar a eficiência da moagem a partir da verificação da distribuição granulométrica obtida. O comportamento da dinâmica do processo de moagem foi observado utilizando-se um sistema de filmagem em que foram analisados os deslocamentos e comparados com os obtidos pela simulação computacional em 2D, realizada no software de simulação DEMpack®. Foi desenvolvida uma metodologia com o apoio da simulação computacional da moagem, utilizando-se a posição dos corpos moedores e as características da massa, cujo objetivo foi o de determinar a potência necessária ao movimento do moinho de bolas. Verificou-se ser possível realizar a calibração do modelo de simulação a partir da comparação das imagens obtidas pela filmagem do experimento. O coeficiente de atrito influenciou o comportamento da dinâmica do processo: obteve-se melhores resultados quando se utilizou um coeficiente de atrito mais baixo para simular o comportamento dos corpos moedores e um coeficiente de atrito mais alto para simular o comportamento da carga. / It was studied the dynamics of the grinding process, analyzing the movement of the load a ball mill on a laboratory scale, from tests carried out and from the simulation using the Discrete Elements Method (MED). An adaptation of mechanical transmission system of the mill was taken in order to vary the speed of rotation between: 57%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75% and 80% of the critical speed (NC). Screening tests without crushing and grinding, varying the percentage of critical mill speed, were performed. With that it was established a reference cutoff point in the mesh sieve (+ 30 #), whose objective was to determine the grinding efficiency from checking the particle size distribution obtained. The dynamic behavior of the milling process was observed using a recording system in which the offsets were analyzed and compared with those obtained by computer simulation of 2D held in DEMpack® simulation software. A methodology with the help of computer simulation of milling was developed, using the position of the grinding media and mass characteristics whose goal was to determine the power required to move the ball mill. It was found to be possible to perform the calibration of the simulation model based on the comparison of images obtained by shooting the experiment. The friction coefficient influence the dynamic behavior of the process: better results are obtained when using a low coefficient of friction to simulate the behavior of the grinding bodies and a higher coefficient of friction to simulate the load behavior.

Diversos materiais de interesse tecnológico podem ser considerados como materiais heterogêneos, onde sua natureza aleatória deve ser considerada para representar corretamente o comportamento não-linear. A avaliação quantitativa do dano em materiais sujeitos a estados de tensão ou deformação tem grande importância devido ao caráter crítico desse fenômeno, que pode crescer de forma abrupta e resultar em uma falha catastrófica da estrutura. Em estudos anteriores, Carpinteri e seus colaboradores apresentaram diferentes aspectos relacionados à caracterização do dano em materiais heterogêneos. Três desses aspectos são discutidos neste trabalho: (i) a proposta do número de fragilidade como medida da fragilidade da estrutura em análise; (ii) a evolução da dimensão fractal em que o processo de dano é desenvolvido; (iii) e os índices globais obtidos pela análise de Emissão Acústica (EA). Neste trabalho, uma versão do método dos elementos discretos formado por barras é utilizada para explorar esses aspectos. Espécimes de material quase-frágil são simulados e, quando possível, os resultados numéricos são comparados com resultados experimentais. Além disso, a discussão dos resultados obtidos é realizada visando compreender o comportamento desse tipo de material, como por exemplo, o fato de que estruturas com diferentes dimensões, porém com o mesmo número de fragilidade, têm comportamentos similares. Ademais, o método numérico empregado é apresentado como uma ferramenta viável para complementar a informação obtida em ensaios experimentais na avaliação do processo de dano. Pelo sinal de EA obtido através do método numérico empregado, obtiveram-se parâmetros para a classificação do tipo de falha e para o cálculo do tensor momento, onde comparando os resultados obtidos pelo modelo numérico e pela EA se observam comportamentos coerentes. / Several materials with technological interest can be considered as heterogeneous materials, where their random nature must be accounted to correctly represent the nonlinear behavior. The quantitative evaluation of damage in materials subjected to stress or strain states have great importance due to the critical nature of this phenomenon, which abruptly can rise to catastrophic failure. In previous studies, Carpinteri and his coworkers have presented different aspects of the damage process characterization in heterogeneous materials. Three of these aspects are discussed in this work: (i) the brittleness number proposal to measure the brittleness level of the analyzed structure, (ii) the relationship of the fractal dimension in which the damage process is developed, (iii) and the global indexes obtained by the Acoustic Emission (AE) analysis. In the present work, a version of discrete element method formed by bars is used to explore these concepts. A set of quasi-brittle material specimen is simulated and, when possible, the numerical results are compared with experimental ones. Moreover, a discussion of the obtained results is carried out aiming to understand the behavior of this kind of material, for instance, the fact that structures with different dimensions, but with the same brittleness number, have similar behavior. In addition, the numerical method is presented as a viable tool to complement information from experimental test on the damage process. From the AE signal obtained by the numerical method, parameters to classify the type of crack and for calculating the moment tensor were obtained, where consistent behaviors are observed by comparing the results of the numerical model and the AE.

L'objectif de ce travail de thèse a été de modéliser avec une méthode aux éléments discrets la fracturation en tension, et plus particulièrement la fragmentation dynamique, sur des matériaux fragiles pour de hautes vitesses de déformation. La fragmentation est un phénomène irréversible, non linéaire et aléatoire. Elle intervient dans de nombreux domaines de la vie courante, quelque soit l'échelle considérée. La modélisation numérique de ce phénomène permettrait une prédiction de certains paramètres statistiques de la fragmentation, comme le nombre de fragments, la taille des fragments, la distribution de la taille des fragments, etc. Pour cette thèse, la Méthode des Éléments Discrets (DEM) s'est révélée être un excellent moyen pour simuler la fracturation en raison de sa nature discrète. Toutefois, une bonne méthode de simulation numérique ne suffit pas à elle seule pour modéliser la fragmentation dynamique. Un critère de rupture doit également être inséré, afin d'introduire un endommagement. Ce critère de rupture s'écrit au niveau d'un lien entre deux particules et il engendre un dommage, en faisant décroître la contrainte locale jusqu'à l'obtention d'une fissuration discrète. Dans un premier temps, un critère de rupture de Camacho-Ortiz |24| a été introduit dans une méthode aux éléments discrets. Ce critère se traduit par un endommagement en fonction d'une ouverture de fissure. Ce premier critère a donné de bons résultats comparé à ceux de |69, 88, 97, 143-147| sur la convergence des paramètres de la fragmentation sur des cas simples, mais nécessite un grand nombre de particules. Dans un second temps, afin d'envisager la modélisation de la fragmentation sur des cas plus complexes en trois dimensions à de hautes vitesses de déformation, un second critère de rupture a été introduit. Ce critère de rupture s'appuie sur une approche physique différente, qui prend en compte l'hétérogénéité des matériaux fragiles avec leurs défauts susceptibles d'évoluer et de provoquer une rupture locale. Pour cela, il fait intervenir une loi probabiliste de Weibull afin d'introduire des défauts par élément de volume. Ce critère a été développé par C. Denoual, P. Forquin et F. Hild |29, 33, 42-44|. Tout d'abord, ce second critère de rupture a été testé sur des cas simples en obtenant une convergence des paramètres statistiques de la fragmentation avec un nombre environ $10$ fois moins important de particules que pour la première méthode. Un cas plus complexe en trois dimensions de modélisation de barre d'Hopkinson en trois dimensions a permis de tester de manière « qualitative » la méthode. / The objective of this thesis work is to model the high-strain rate and dynamic fragmentation of brittle materials using the Discrete Element Method. Fragmentation is an irreversible, nonlinear and random phenomenon.It can be found in many practical applications in engineering and can take place at various length scales. This research work takes advantages of computer simulations to model this phenomenon and to predict a few statistical parameters related to fragmentation including number, size, and size distribution of fragments. To this effect, the Discrete Element Method was found to simulate efficiently fracturing, which is a discrete phenomenon by nature. However, an efficient computer simulation is not sufficient for representing fragmentation. It also needs to account for a rupture criterion and a damage criterion. This rupture criterion is defined at the contact points between particles where it generates a local damage that decreases the local stress until a discrete crack appears. In a first step, the rupture criterion of Camacho-Ortiz |24| has been introduced in the Discrete Element Method. This criterion expresses damage as a function of crack opening. When the local stress reaches a rupture threshold, it decreases linearly with the crack opening until the rupture is obtained. This first criterion gives good results on the convergence of fragmentation parameters in simple cases |69, 88, 97, 143-147|, but requires a great number of particles. In a second step, another rupture criterion has been introduced for simulating the fragmentation of more complex three-dimensional structures for high-strain rates. This rupture criterion is based on a different physical approach that accounts for heterogeneous brittle materials with defects. These defects can evolve and cause local failure. They are introduced per unit volume elementusing a Weibull probability distribution |29, 33, 42-44|. This distribution depends on the local stress until the local stress reaches an activation threshold. After that, the defects propagate and form areas of relaxation in which defect cannot evolve. The damage evolves as these areas of relaxation evolve. This second rupture criterion has been validated in simple cases by examining the convergence of the statistical parameters of fragmentation. Compared to the first criterion, the second criterion requires ten times fewer particles. After, a more complex three-dimensional case, dynamic tensile tests in Hopkinson bars, has been treated.

Quando o concreto é submetido a ações especiais, como cargas cíclicas ou ação de cargas de impacto, modificações em sua composição são necessárias, já que o concreto não apresenta desempenho satisfatório à tração, o que compromete o seu comportamento frente à ação de cargas dinâmicas. Uma alternativa para amenizar esta deficiência consiste em adicionar fibras ao concreto. Estas atuam como reforços à tração, transformando a matriz cimentícia, tipicamente frágil, em um material que apresenta boa resistência residual após a fissuração. Buscando colaborar na avaliação da eficiência de diferentes tipos de fibras, o presente trabalho analisa o comportamento de concretos com fibras de aço, submetidos ao impacto, avaliando a influência do fator de forma, do comprimento e do teor de fibras, assim como do tamanho do agregado. São ainda analisados os efeitos da incorporação de fibras na resistência à compressão, na resistência à tração por compressão diametral, no módulo de elasticidade e na tenacidade dos compósitos. Adicionalmente, é executada uma comparação entre os resultados experimentais e os derivados de um esquema de modelagem da situação de impacto através do uso do método de elementos discretos. Buscou-se, através da modelagem teórica, executar um mapeamento dos danos, provocados por cargas de impacto incrementais, ao longo do tempo, bem como determinar as energias necessárias para levar as placas até a ruptura. Os resultados indicam que a incorporação de fibras de aço não consegue retardar o aparecimento da primeira fissura, mas aumenta significativamente a tenacidade dos compósitos. Fibras mais longas e com maior fator de forma tendem a ser mais eficientes, desde que se supere um teor de fibras mínimo, que neste trabalho ficou em torno de 100.000 fibras/m3, para fibras longas (50-60 mm) e de 400.000 fibras/m3, para fibras curtas, cuja ancoragem é menos eficiente. O método de teste de impacto por queda de esfera se mostrou adequado e sensível, porém o esquema de modelagem numérica testado necessita ser refinado para permitir uma adequada simulação do comportamento de concretos com fibras. / When submitted to special loading patterns, derived from dynamical actions such as cyclic or impact loads, concrete elements need to be reinforced, in order to resist the tensile stresses. A feasible alternative, in such cases, is to incorporate fibers in the concrete matrix. The fibers act as a tensile reinforcement, transforming the fragile cement matrix into a composite with significant post-cracking residual strength. In order to contribute with the data collection about the efficiency of different fiber types, the present research work presents an analysis of the behavior of steel fiber reinforced concretes subjected to impact loads. The work investigates the influences of changes in the shape factor, length and amount of fibers. The effects of these combinations on other basic properties of the composites, such as compression strength, split cylinder tensile strength, Young’s modulus and tenacity is also measured. Additionally, a comparison is made between the experimental results from the impact tests and the estimates obtained from a theoretical model that uses the discrete element method (DEM). This theoretical approach aimed to determine if the model was able to simulate the damage evolution over time generated by the increasing impacts loads, as well as to determine the total energy necessary to crack and break the specimens. The results obtained pointed out that the introduction of steel fibers does not affect the energy for the first crack but increases significantly the tenacity of the composite. Longer fibers, with greater shape factors, tend to be more efficient, provided that the fiber content is sufficiently high. The minimum recommended fiber content, according to the data from this research, may be around 100.000 fibers/m3, for longer fibers (50-60 mm). Or around 400.000 fibers/m3, for shorter fibers, which are not so efficient in terms of anchorage. The impact test method developed was considered adequate, being sensitive to the phenomenon and providing reliable data. The DEM model, however, needs to be refined to be able to deal with fiber concrete composites.

Quando o concreto é submetido a carregamentos especiais, como cargas cíclicas ou ação de cargas de impacto, modificações em sua composição são necessárias. Uma vez que o material não apresenta desempenho satisfatório à tração, seu comportamento frente a este tipo de carregamento acaba seriamente comprometido. Uma alternativa para amenizar esta deficiência consiste em adicionar fibras de aço ao concreto. Ao adicionar estes elementos à matriz cimentícia, promove-se meios de transferência de tensões através das fissuras, aumentando a tenacidade do material, proporcionando mecanismos de absorção, relacionados com o desligamento e o arrancamento de fibras. Um número significativo de trabalhos experimentais envolvendo os mais diversos tipos de elementos estruturais reforçados com fibras de aço está disponível, havendo, no entanto, uma forte carência sob o ponto de vista de simulações numéricas. Buscando colaborar no desenvolvimento do material, o presente trabalho propõe a aplicação do Método dos Elementos Discretos para simulação do compósito submetido a carregamentos estáticos e dinâmicos. São realizadas alterações no algoritmo do método a fim de realizar a dispersão de fibras de aço na matriz de concreto. A análise das condições de contorno utilizadas em trabalho anterior revela a necessidade de aplicação de apoios elásticos sob pena de superestimar a rigidez do modelo. Os diagramas carga versus deslocamento que resultaram dos ensaios estáticos demonstram que o modelo criado é sensível à adição de fibras: maiores teores conduzem a modelos com maior tenacidade. O ensaio de impacto também se mostrou sensível e o padrão de fissuração encontrado nas simulações revelou uma boa aproximação com ensaios experimentais anteriores. / When submitted to special loading patterns, derived from dynamical actions such as cyclic or impact loads, some alterations in the concrete constitution need to be done, since the material don’t have an adequate behavior under tensile stress. A feasible alternative, in such cases, is to incorporate steel fibers in the concrete matrix. Adding these elements, stress transference mechanisms along the cracks are promoted, increasing the material tenacity. An expressive number of experimental works involving all the kinds of steel fiber reinforced concrete structural elements are available. However, few researches based on numerical methods are found in the literature. In order to contribute with the data collection and the development of the material, the present research work proposes the application of the Discrete Element Method to simulate the composite subjected to static and dynamic loads. Some modifications are made on the method algorithm trying to create the dispersion of fibers in the concrete matrix. The analysis of the boundary conditions used on previous work reveal the importance of using elastic support to don’t overestimate the stiffness of the model. The diagram load versus displacement that came from the static simulations shows that the model is sensible to the addition of fibers: higher proportions of fiber leads to models with higher tenacity. The impact tests also demonstrate sensibility and the crack pattern found on the simulations presented a very good approximation to previous experimental work.

Les modèles d'érosion et de transport couramment utilisés sont construits à partir de données empiriques obtenues avec des sédiments de granulométries quasi uniformes. Or, il y a beaucoup de situations pour lesquelles la granulométrie des sédiments n’est pas uniforme. Les expériences réalisées en laboratoire et dans les rivières montrent que l’érosion et le transport des sédiments dépendent de la dispersion du diamètre des grains. Cette observation est à l’origine de cette thèse qui a pour objectif l’étude de l’influence de la distribution du diamètre des grains sur le transport de sédiments. Cette influence est envisagée à partir du développement d’un modèle numérique. La prédiction de l’érosion et du transport de sédiments tient de la résolution de deux problèmes : le premier est lié à l’écoulement au dessus du lit, le second à la mise en mouvement du sédiment. Le modèle développé détermine explicitement le mouvement des grains dans le lit de sédiments lorsque sa face supérieure est soumise à un écoulement. Pour cela, il mobilise la Méthode des Eléments Discrets (DEM), développée par Cundall et Strack (1979). Afin de reproduire l’effet de la topographie du lit sur le champ de vitesse du fluide, le modèle DEM est couplé avec le modèle d’écoulement FLOWSTAR. Le modèle FLOWSTAR est proposé par Carruthers et al. (2004) pour déterminer l’écoulement moyen dans une couche limite turbulente atmosphérique au-dessus des collines de faible pente. Le modèle numérique développé est appliqué à différents types d’arrangements de grains. Il permet d’estimer l’évolution du débit de sédiments au cours du temps pour différentes vitesses de frottement. Les seuils d’érosion des lits et l’évolution des débits de sédiments en fonction de la vitesse de frottement sont conformes à l’expérience. L’utilisation de l’approche DEM permet par ailleurs de connaître le comportement des grains dans et à la surface du lit au cours du temps (profil vertical de la vitesse des grains à l’intérieur de l’arrangement par exemple) / The models for the erosion and transport of sediments that are currently used rely on empirical data obtained from experiments with sediments having a uniform or unimodal distribution. But there are many practical situations for which the size distribution is significantly different from this assumed distribution, and laboratory and field experiments have shown that the erosion threshold and the transport rate depend on the size distribution and the range of particle sizes. The aim of this study is therefore to investigate and explain the influence of size distribution on erosion and transport rates, using a numerical model that has been developed specifically to study this problem. The sediment bed is assumed to consist of individual, non-cohesive, spherical particles, and the physical interactions between the particles are modelled explicitly, using the Discrete Element Method developed by Cundall and Strack (1979). The flow above the bed is computed using the FLOWSTAR model (Carruthers et al 2000) which was originally developed to compute the flow in the atmospheric boundary layer above arbitrary topography. These two models are coupled, and the resulting numerical code has been used to investigate the temporal evolution of erosion and transport rates agree well with experimental measurements, and the DEM provides additional information concerning the temporal evolution of the particle size distribution within the bed.

Le matériau composite carbone/carbone ou C/C est utilisé en temps que matériau de friction en freinage aéronautique. Matériau complexe tant du point de vue de sa description microstructurale que de son comportement sous sollicitations tribologiques, il a été l’objet de nombreuses études visant à mieux comprendre les mécanismes régissant sa réponse (frottement, endommagement, usure) à ces sollicitations. Dans cette étude nous nous focalisons sur l’aspect mécanique de cette réponse. En particulier, nous nous intéressons aux endommagements présents dans le matériau : nous souhaitons étudier tant leurs origines que leur influence sur le comportement du matériau. Pour cela, nous choisissons une approche combinée numérique et expérimentale, nous permettant d’identifier de façon exhaustive ces endommagements puis de construire un modèle numérique tribologique permettant d’étudier les mécanismes d’usure du matériau. Nous montrons comment les mécanismes d’accommodation en volume du 1er corps influent sur les détachements de particules en surface, nous conduisant à parler de dialogue tribologique surface/volume. Le modèle numérique utilise la méthode des éléments discrets pour représenter 1er et 3ième corps simultanément. Un travail est réalisé autour de la représentativité du modèle vis-à-vis des caractéristiques mécaniques du composite C/C. Nous proposons également une démarche de recherche d’un Volume Elémentaire Représentatif sous condition de contact. Ce modèle ainsi que les observations du matériau nous permettent de proposer un scenario de comportement tribologique du composite C/C, en fonction des sollicitations thermomécaniques qui lui sont appliquées et correspondant aux différents types de freinages aéronautiques. Les endommagements identifiés dans le volume du matériau se révèlent être bénéfiques dans certains cas de figure au travers d’un mécanisme de rigidification du matériau intervenant à haute température, ce qui nous conduit à parler d’ « endommagement utile ». Le scenario intègre donc ce phénomène, ainsi que d’autres tant mécaniques que physicochimiques et identifiés par cette étude ou dans la littérature, et montre comment leur équilibre « dynamique » produit le comportement tribologique identifié du matériau pour les différentes gammes de sollicitations qui lui sont appliquées. / Carbon/Carbon (or C/C) composite is used as a friction material in aeronautical braking applications. This is a complex material from both microstructural and tribological behavior points of view. Thus, it has been studied through various works for several years, aiming at understanding what mechanisms guide this material response (friction, damage, wear) under tribological conditions. In this study, a focus is performed on mechanical aspects such as damages that occur in the numerical and experimental approach, in view to identify and classify the damages as well as to build a numerical model used to investigate wear mechanisms. It is underlined how first-body accommodation mechanisms have a great influence on particles detachment at the interface, as a surface/volume tribological dialogue take place. This model is based on the Discrete Elements method and represents simultaneously first- and third-body; such model is able to represent fist-body degradation as well as creation and flow of third-body particles. Its representativeness is ensured through experimental comparisons, particularly on mechanical aspects. A procedure is proposed for the research of a Representative Elementary Volume under contact conditions. Model results and material observations allow proposing a global scenario explaining C/C composite behavior under tribological conditions, which are representative of different aeronautical braking cases. Damages, identified in the volume of the first-body, reveal themselves to be sometimes beneficial, and could be characterized as “useful damages”. The scenario takes into account this phenomenon, as well as thermal, mechanical and physicochemical ones, identified from this work or literature. It explains the influences of these parameters on C/C tribology and show how the dynamic equilibrium between them results on the C/C response, particularly its wear mechanism.

Le travail présenté dans ce mémoire de thèse porte sur la modélisation discrète de l’évolution régressive du front d’un conduit d’érosion qui peut se produire dans les barrages ou digues en remblai. Des outils numériques ont été développés en se basant sur le couplage entre la méthode des éléments discrets (DEM) et la méthode de Boltzmann sur réseau (LBM) pour la description, respectivement, des phases solide et fluide. L’implémentation de la méthode DEM suit une approche standard de type dynamique moléculaire (DM) et les interactions intergranulaires sont modélisées par des contacts unilatéraux visco-élastiques frottants ou bilatéraux (ponts solides) viscoélastiques, afin de permettre la modélisation d’un sol légèrement cohésif. La méthode LBM est implémentée ici avec des temps de relaxation multiples (MRT) et une condition de rebondissement interpolée pour les frontières solides en mouvement, afin d’améliorer la stabilité numérique des calculs. Le schéma du couplage entre les deux méthodes, ainsi que les critères pour le choix des paramètres numériques des deux méthodes. Pour étudier le phénomène visé, un échantillon représentatif de sol granulaire situé au front d’un conduit d’érosion est d’abord assemblé par une procédure de préparation “à sec”, puis testé dans des conditions saturées sous un chargement hydraulique monotone croissant. L’érosion régressive se produit par amas de grains au niveau du front d’érosion ayant subi au préalable une dégradation due à de nombreuses ruptures de ponts solides en traction. L’autre phénomène important observé est la présence d’arcs associés a` des chaines de forces en compression qui parviennent à maintenir parfois totalement, parfois partiellement l’intégrité du matériau non érodé. / The work reported in this thesis consists in a discrete modelling of the backward front propagation of an erosion pipe, as can take place in embankment dams or dikes. Some numerical tools have been developed to this end, based on the coupling between the Discrete Element Method (DEM) and the Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) for the representation of the solid and uid phases, respectively. The implementation of DEM follows a standard molecular dynamics approach and the interaction among grains are regulated by unilteral frictional visco-elastic and breakable visco-elastic bonds, in order to take into account a slightly cohesive soil behaviour. The LBM was implemented according to the Multiple Relaxation Time (MRT) scheme along with an interpolated non-slip conditions for moving boundaries, in order to improve the numerical stability of the calculations. The coupling scheme is described along with the criteria for the numerical parameters of the two methods. A representative specimen of a granular soil located at the front of an erosion pipe is first assembled by a \dry" preparation precedure and then tested under fully-saturated conditions and increasing hydraulic load over time. Backward erosion is takes place in the form of clusters of grain being eroded at the erosion front after a degradation of the material due to the breakage of tensile bonds. The other interesting feature that was observed is the creation of arches of compressive force chains. These arches enabled the specimen to maintain a stable or metastable configuration under the increasing hydraulic load.