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Ferrate (VI) has been studied as an alternative chemical to disinfect water and wastewater in recent years. The disinfection effectiveness of two different wet oxidation ferrate (VI) synthesis formulas in wastewater and Econlockhatchee River water was evaluated. Ferrate (VI) is synthesized by addition of ferric chloride to a mixture of sodium hydroxide and calcium hypochlorite (refer to U.S. Patent 6,790,429). One ferrate (VI) synthesis formula uses below the stoichiometric requirement of hypochlorite (Low Chlorine Formula) while the other ferrate (VI) synthesis formula uses more than the stoichiometric requirement of hypochlorite (Standard Chlorine Formula). For applications requiring low chlorine residual effluent quality, the Low Chlorine Formula intuitively is a more suitable disinfectant than the Standard Formula. For applications where chlorine residual is of little or no significance, the Standard Formula is logically a more suitable disinfectant due to lower production cost and production of higher ferrate (VI) concentrations than the Low Chlorine Formula. The total chlorine concentration, unfiltered and filtered ferrate (VI) concentration, and dissolved organic carbon concentration before and after treatment using both ferrate (VI) formulas in wastewater and Econ River water was measured at a contact time of 30 minutes. Disinfection capabilities were measured by comparing the quantity of Heterotrophic bacteria, Total Coliform, Escherichia coli, and Enterococcus bacteria pre-ferrate (VI) to post-ferrate (VI) at dosages of 2, 4, and 7.5 mg/L as ferrate (VI) using both ferrate (VI) formulas. The rate of disappearance of both ferrate (VI) formulas in wastewater at an unadjusted pH and pH of 6.0-6.35 was determined. In addition the total oxidant absorbance and total chlorine concentration were measured over a 30-minute period. Both ferrate (VI) formulas were effective at inactivating Total Coliform, E. Coli, Enterococcus, and heterotrophic bacteria at a 30-minute contact time and lowering DOC concentrations in Econlockhatchee River water and secondary wastewater. The Standard Formula demonstrated better disinfection at lower dosages than the Low Chlorine Formula. In both ferrate (VI) formulas, there was a presence of an instantaneous demand of ferrate (VI) and a first-order reaction rate of ferrate (VI) over 30 minutes. The chlorine residual of 7.5 mg/L ferrate (VI) dose in wastewater at a 30-minute contact time was 0.2 to 0.6 mg/L Cl2 for the Low Chlorine Formula and 0.8 to 1.4 mg/L Cl2 for the Standard Formula. These experiments indicate that both ferrate (VI) formulas can serve as effective environmentally friendly disinfectants for wastewater and Econ River water.

No / Organic matter (OM) causes many problems in drinking water treatment. It is difficult to monitor OM concentrations and character during treatment processes due to its complexity. Fluorescence spectroscopy is a promising tool for online monitoring. In this study, a unique dataset of fluorescence excitation emission matrixes (EEMs) (n = 867) was collected from all treatment stages of five drinking water treatment plants (WTPs) situated in diverse locations from subtropical to temperate climate. The WTPs incorporated various water sources, treatment processes and OM removal efficiencies (DOC removal 0%–68%). Despite these differences, four common fluorescence PARAFAC components were identified for characterisation of OM concentration and treatability. Moreover, fluorescence component ratios showed site-specific statistically significant correlations with OM removal, which contrasted with correlations between specific UV absorbance at 254 nm (SUVA) and OM removal that were not statistically significant. This indicates that use of fluorescence spectroscopy may be a more robust alternative for predicting DOC removal than UV spectroscopy. Based on the identified fluorescence components, four optical locations were selected in order to move towards single wavelength online OM monitoring.

Antihistamines are a group of pharmaceuticals that enter the environment and may affect microorganisms that regulate decomposing of organic matter and the release of carbon and nitrogen from soils. In this study I investigated if the antihistamine fexofenadine decreases the concentration of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) from humus. I used humus from two vegetation types (heath and meadow), and used a batch experiment approach, where humus was mixed with fexofenadine solutions (2000 ng/L and 20 000 ng/L). After ten days in room temperature, the samples with fexofenadine were compared with batches containing pure water solutions (control). I found differences in the concentration of DOC, DON and pH that were dependent on the studied vegetation types. There were higher concentrations of DOC and DON in heath (35.9 mg/L and 2.0 mg/L) than in the more nutrient rich meadow (9.2 mg/L and 0.5 mg/L). The latter vegetation type did also have a higher pH. In contrast to my hypothesis, the concentration of DOC and DON was not significantly affected by the fexofenadine. However, if considering a 90%-level of significance, there were a significant interaction effect where concentration of DOC decreased in meadow and increased it in heath. A possible vegetation specific effect of fexofenadin seems plausible as microbial biomass and activity in the vegetation types are known to differ. My findings cannot exclude that fexofenadine stimulates degradation of DOC in the more microbial active meadow humus, but not in the humus of heath where activities are lower.

Snowmelt river systems exhibit seasonal fluxes in water chemistry, potentially affecting the water supply of one-sixth of the worlds population. In this study, we examined water chemistry of the upper Provo River, northern Utah, which supplies water to over two million people along the urban Wasatch Front. Seasonal changes in water chemistry were characterized by analyzing discharge and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) with dissolved trace metal and cation concentrations (La, Pb, Cu, Al, Be, Sr and K) over three consecutive water years 20142016, with intensive sampling during snowmelt runoff. To better understand links between metal movement and DOC, we sampled the river in three locations (Soapstone, Woodland, and Hailstone), snowpack, and ephemeral snowmelt channels. Concentrations of La, Pb, Cu, Al, and Be increased with discharge/snowmelt during the 2014, 2015 and 2016 water years. Over 90% of La, Pb, Cu, Al, Be and between 70-90% Sr and K loads occurred during the snowmelt season (April-June). In relation to discharge, concentrations of each element varied between the river sampling sites. At Soapstone, DOC, La, Pb, Cu, Al and Be increased slightly with discharge, but Sr and K remained chemostatic. At Woodland and Hailstone, DOC, La, Pb, Cu, Al and Be had sharp increases with discharge, and Sr and K were diluted. Hysteresis patterns showed that concentrations of DOC, La, Pb, Cu, Al, Be, Sr and K all peaked on the rising limb of the hydrograph at the higher elevation Soapstone site but patterns were variable at the lower elevation Woodland and Hailstone sites. Concentrations for ephemeral channels were significantly higher than river and snow concentrations in La, Pb, Cu and Al, suggesting soil water was a significant source of flushed metals and DOC to the upper Provo River. DOC was highly correlated with La (R2 = 0.94, P = < .0001), Pb (R2 = 0.76, P = < .0023), Cu (R2 = 0.83, P = < .0001), Al (R2 = 0.94, P = < .0001) and Be (R2 = 0.93, P = < .0005), and likely facilitating metal transport. More work is needed to determine the mechanisms of DOC and metal transport, and potential metal complexation. This study has implications for understanding water quality impacts from metal flushing during snowmelt in mountain watersheds.

Snowmelt river systems exhibit seasonal fluxes in water chemistry, potentially affecting the water supply of one-sixth of the worlds population. In this study, we examined water chemistry of the upper Provo River, northern Utah, which supplies water to over two million people along the urban Wasatch Front. Seasonal changes in water chemistry were characterized by analyzing discharge and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) with dissolved trace metal and cation concentrations (La, Pb, Cu, Al, Be, Sr and K) over three consecutive water years 2014”2016, with intensive sampling during snowmelt runoff. To better understand links between metal movement and DOC, we sampled the river in three locations (Soapstone, Woodland, and Hailstone), snowpack, and ephemeral snowmelt channels. Concentrations of La, Pb, Cu, Al, and Be increased with discharge/snowmelt during the 2014, 2015 and 2016 water years. Over 90% of La, Pb, Cu, Al, Be and between 70-90% Sr and K loads occurred during the snowmelt season (April-June). In relation to discharge, concentrations of each element varied between the river sampling sites. At Soapstone, DOC, La, Pb, Cu, Al and Be increased slightly with discharge, but Sr and K remained chemostatic. At Woodland and Hailstone, DOC, La, Pb, Cu, Al and Be had sharp increases with discharge, and Sr and K were diluted. Hysteresis patterns showed that concentrations of DOC, La, Pb, Cu, Al, Be, Sr and K all peaked on the rising limb of the hydrograph at the higher elevation Soapstone site but patterns were variable at the lower elevation Woodland and Hailstone sites. Concentrations for ephemeral channels were significantly higher than river and snow concentrations in La, Pb, Cu and Al, suggesting soil water was a significant source of flushed metals and DOC to the upper Provo River. DOC was highly correlated with La (R2 = 0.94, P = <<> .0001), Pb (R2 = 0.76, P = <<> .0023), Cu (R2 = 0.83, P = <<> .0001), Al (R2 = 0.94, P = <<> .0001) and Be (R2 = 0.93, P = <<> .0005), and likely facilitating metal transport. More work is needed to determine the mechanisms of DOC and metal transport, and potential metal complexation. This study has implications for understanding water quality impacts from metal flushing during snowmelt in mountain watersheds.

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In the western United States, elevated selenium (Se) levels in soil have resulted in documented cases of ruminant fatalities. This is due to the ingestion of Se-hyperaccumulating vegetation growing on previously reclaimed phosphate mine soils. A field-scale analysis was first conducted to examine Se bioavailability to plants. Soil and plant samples were collected from transects from five study locations in Soda Springs, Idaho. Soils were analyzed for Se speciation and geochemical phases using a sequential extraction procedure (SEP). Additionally, speciation, SEP results, and Se bioavailability in the hyperaccumulator, western aster (Symphyotrichum ascendens (Lindl.)), were related using simple linear regression. Soil speciation and the validity of this SEP were then evaluated using synchrotron-sourced X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) spectroscopy for both whole and a sequence of extracted soils. Lastly, competitive adsorption of Se with two dissolved organic carbon (DOC) species, citric and salicylic acid, was examined on an amorphous iron oxide mineral surface. A strong relationship was identified for western aster Se and the first two combined SEP fractions, water-soluble and PO43--extractable Se (R2 = 0.85; P = <0.0001). Results also indicated a strong relationship between selenate and water-soluble Se (R2 = 0.83; P = 0.0002). This suggests that water extracts could be useful Se bioavailability assessment tools in highly contaminated systems. XAFS analyses indicated that elemental and organic Se were the most predominant phases overall in whole soils. The dominant oxidized species present was selenite sorbed onto iron oxides and calcite. Critical SEP evaluations using XAFS also indicate that oxidized Se species were underestimated by the SEP and elemental Se was overestimated. In extracted soils, XAFS results indicated partial recovery of carbonate, iron oxide and organic Se occurred. Therefore, it is suggested that researchers exert caution when employing SEPs. Additionally, sorption analyses demonstrated the highly competitive behavior of citric acid with both selenite (pH 5-8) and selenate (pH 5-6). Little competition was observed in the presence of salicylic acid for both Se species. Competition and subsequent desorption of both sorbed species in the presence of citric acid suggest a possible mechanism for Se solubilization and bioavailability in seleniferous environments. / Ph. D.