This thesis presents a method of detecting electrical islands in low voltage distributed generator networks by measuring negative sequence impedance differences between islanded and utility connections. Extensive testing was conducted on a commercial building and 25 kV distributed generator fed network by measuring naturally occurring and artificially injected negative sequence components. Similarly, this technique was tested using the IEEE 399-1990 bus test case using the EMTP software. The practical measurements have been matched to simulations where further system performance characteristics of detecting power system islands has been successfully demonstrated. Measured results indicate that unbalanced load conditions are naturally occurring and readily measurable while deliberately unbalanced loads can increase the accuracy of negative sequence impedance islanding detection. The typically low negative sequence impedance of induction motors was found to have only a small effect in low voltage busses, though large machines can effect the threshold settings. Careful placement of the island detector is required in these situations. The negative sequence impedance measurement method is an improvement on previous impedance measurement techniques for islanding detection due to its accuracy, and distinctly large threshold window which have challenged previous impedance based islanding detection techniques.

This thesis presents a method of detecting electrical islands in low voltage distributed generator networks by measuring negative sequence impedance differences between islanded and utility connections. Extensive testing was conducted on a commercial building and 25 kV distributed generator fed network by measuring naturally occurring and artificially injected negative sequence components. Similarly, this technique was tested using the IEEE 399-1990 bus test case using the EMTP software. The practical measurements have been matched to simulations where further system performance characteristics of detecting power system islands has been successfully demonstrated. Measured results indicate that unbalanced load conditions are naturally occurring and readily measurable while deliberately unbalanced loads can increase the accuracy of negative sequence impedance islanding detection. The typically low negative sequence impedance of induction motors was found to have only a small effect in low voltage busses, though large machines can effect the threshold settings. Careful placement of the island detector is required in these situations. The negative sequence impedance measurement method is an improvement on previous impedance measurement techniques for islanding detection due to its accuracy, and distinctly large threshold window which have challenged previous impedance based islanding detection techniques.

This thesis presents a method of detecting electrical islands in low voltage distributed generator networks by measuring negative sequence impedance differences between islanded and utility connections. Extensive testing was conducted on a commercial building and 25 kV distributed generator fed network by measuring naturally occurring and artificially injected negative sequence components. Similarly, this technique was tested using the IEEE 399-1990 bus test case using the EMTP software. The practical measurements have been matched to simulations where further system performance characteristics of detecting power system islands has been successfully demonstrated. Measured results indicate that unbalanced load conditions are naturally occurring and readily measurable while deliberately unbalanced loads can increase the accuracy of negative sequence impedance islanding detection. The typically low negative sequence impedance of induction motors was found to have only a small effect in low voltage busses, though large machines can effect the threshold settings. Careful placement of the island detector is required in these situations. The negative sequence impedance measurement method is an improvement on previous impedance measurement techniques for islanding detection due to its accuracy, and distinctly large threshold window which have challenged previous impedance based islanding detection techniques. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Electrical and Computer Engineering, Department of / Graduate

With the increasing interest in distribution automation, distribution power flow is important for applications like VAR planning, switching, state estimation and especially optimization. Typically, a distribution system originates at a substation and continues to a lower voltage for delivery to the customers. There are several tools for transmission system analysis. These tools include Newton Raphson, Gauss Seidel and fast decoupled techniques. These techniques however sometimes fail to converge when applied to distribution systems due to their higher resistance/reactance (R/X) ratio of the lines, making them ill conditioned. Distribution systems typically have a radial topological structure where the loads are not always constant power. With the increase in distributed generation (DG) there is a critical need to develop analysis tools to study the effect they will have on the distribution systems. Also, shipboard power systems are different from terrestrial distribution systems, as they are tightly coupled and have multiple generators. This dissertation focuses on developing a software program to perform the power flow analysis of terrestrial as well as shipboard power systems. Components are modeled considering the mutual coupling of cables and the tightly coupled nature of the ship systems. The algorithm is built and tested on I test cases. The distributed generator is modeled as both a PQ (constant power factor) and a PV (constant voltage) node. This dissertation also focuses on reconfiguration for restoration of unbalanced distribution systems. Reconfiguration is changing the status (OFF/ON) of switches and reconfiguration for restoration is changing the switch status to maximize the supply to loads that are left unsupplied after fault removal. Methods exist for restoration of distribution systems and can be categorized into heuristics, knowledge based, meta-heuristics and intelligent techniques. However, the application of these methods have not considered the unbalanced nature of distribution system operation with mutual coupling. The restoration in this dissertation is achieved using optimization with multiple objectives; that of maximizing the load giving priority to vital loads and minimizing the number of switch operations. Also a restoration scheme for shipboard power systems with an IPS and distributed generation has been developed. Restoration with possible islanding is demonstrated.

Significant penetration of distributed generation (DG) and the increasing automation level available for distribution networks have opened an option of splitting a network into subsystems and operating each as an "autonomous island". This is particularly important when a major contingency occurs. However, there are issues and challenges that must be addressed before islanded operation becomes viable, among which, ensuring seamless switching of a distribution subsystem from grid-connected to islanded mode is critically important. Unless the subsystem is a predesigned microgrid, it is highly possible that the subsystem load demand will exceed the generation capacity of island DGs. Therefore, an appropriate load shedding scheme must be implemented to ensure the islanded subsystem is power balanced. In this thesis, a switching control strategy is designed to deliver seamless islanding switching. This strategy comprises a multiple-DG coordination method and a single-step load shedding scheme. Mathematical studies and time-domain simulations that investigate the transients observed during the islanding switching process are both conducted, and together, they are used to address the transient stability issues of an islanded subsystem. This thesis focuses on a distribution subsystem consisting of a mix of synchronous and inverter-based DGs and a combination of static and dynamic loads. DG modelling and control is first introduced, and based on that, various types of method to achieve multiple-DG coordination, including an innovative multiple-master strategy, are investigated. The widely accepted master-slave strategy is used to coordinate DGs when the subsystem is islanded. The strategy demands a single dispatchable and controllable DG, such as a synchronous generator, to be the master, whilst requires the others, such as intermittent renewable-based DGs, to be the slaves. Dynamic load modelling is another critical part of this thesis. The transient stability of dynamic loads after major disturbances is investigated and then used to design the stability-oriented load shedding priority. The single-step load shedding scheme calculates the load shedding amount based on the power flow at the point of common coupling (PCC) and the spinning reserve available in the island. This scheme is activated by the tripping event of the PCC circuit breaker between the grid and the island, and then priorities the load to be shed according to the priority predetermined from the stability perspective. Mathematical analysis is first conducted on a simple subsystem to investigate the impact of DG settings on the islanding transients. A full-scale subsystem is also simulated in PSCAD/EMTDC and used to verify the effectiveness of the switching control strategy. In time-domain simulations, the subsystem is islanded following either a routine switching event or a permanent grid fault. Various factors that may affect the transient performance are analysed, such as the severity of the fault, the DG penetration level, the fault clearance time and the switching control delay. This thesis concludes that based on the proposed switching control strategy, the concept of seamless switching from grid-connected to islanded operation is technically viable.

Yes / Hybrid AC-DC microgrid (HMG) allows direct integration of both AC distributed generators (DGs) and DC DGs, AC and DC loads into the grid. The AC and DC sources, loads are separate out and are connected to respective subgrid mainly to reduce the power conversion, thus the overall efficiency of the system increases. This paper aims to introduce a novel hybrid AC-DC microgrid planning and design model within a microgrid market environment to maximize net social welfare (NSW). NSW is defined as present value of total demand payment minus present value of total planning cost including investment cost of distributed energy sources (DERs) and converters, operation cost of DERs and the cost of energy exchange with the utility grid subject to network constraints. Scenario Tree approach is used to model the uncertainties related to load demand, wind speed and solar irradiation. The effectiveness of the proposed model is validated through the simulation studies on a 28-bus real hybrid AC-DC microgrid.

A conexão de geradores distribuídos nas redes de subtransmissão e de distribuição de energia elétrica se mostra cada vez mais crescente devido aos inúmeros benefícios técnicos e econômicos alcançados com essa tecnologia. No entanto, há importantes implicações técnicas que precisam ser analisadas antes que um gerador distribuído seja conectado em paralelo ao sistema elétrico. Um aspecto a ser analisado, e que é comum entre as concessionárias de energia elétrica é a adequação da proteção anti-ilhamento, a qual tem a função de detectar essa condição e, automaticamente, desconectar os geradores distribuídos, dentro de um tempo pré-determinado, e assim mantê-los até que o fornecimento de energia seja restabelecido. Neste contexto, este trabalho analisará o desempenho dos relés de proteção anti-ilhamento em face de diferentes tipos de cargas que acabam afetando o tempo de detecção do ilhamento. Com isso, pretende-se obter subsídios para que os ajustes desses relés sejam calculados de forma eficiente. Os relés estudados são o relé de sub/sobrefrequência e o relé de taxa de variação da frequência, e o gerador distribuído é do tipo síncrono equipado com controle de tensão. As análises mostraram que no instante em que ocorre um ilhamento os fatores que mais influenciam no desempenho dos relés de proteção anti-ilhamento são as condições de carga e geração, tempo de detecção estabelecido, tipo do relé adotado, ajuste do mesmo e modelo de carga utilizado. / The connection of distributed generators to power subtransmission and distribution networks has been increasing recently due to the technical and economic benefits that such technology can provide. However, there are important technical issues that need to be carefully analyzed before a distributed generator is connected to electrical systems. One issue to be analyzed, which is common sense among utility companies, is the anti-islanding protection, whose main goal is to detect unintentional islanding and, automatically, disconnect the distributed generators within a required time-interval. In this context, this work will analyze the performance of anti-islanding protection relays in face of different load types. With this study, one intend to get support for adjusting these relays efficiently. The relays studied in this work are the under/over frequency and the rate of change of frequency relays, and the distributed generator is a synchronous machine equipped with an automatic voltage regulator. The analyzes showed that the moment a islanding occurs the most important factors influencing the performance of relays anti-islanding protection are the conditions of load and generation, detection time set, type and relay setting adopted and load model.

A conexão de geradores distribuídos nas redes de subtransmissão e de distribuição de energia elétrica se mostra cada vez mais crescente devido aos inúmeros benefícios técnicos e econômicos alcançados com essa tecnologia. No entanto, há importantes implicações técnicas que precisam ser analisadas antes que um gerador distribuído seja conectado em paralelo ao sistema elétrico. Um aspecto a ser analisado, e que é comum entre as concessionárias de energia elétrica é a adequação da proteção anti-ilhamento, a qual tem a função de detectar essa condição e, automaticamente, desconectar os geradores distribuídos, dentro de um tempo pré-determinado, e assim mantê-los até que o fornecimento de energia seja restabelecido. Neste contexto, este trabalho analisará o desempenho dos relés de proteção anti-ilhamento em face de diferentes tipos de cargas que acabam afetando o tempo de detecção do ilhamento. Com isso, pretende-se obter subsídios para que os ajustes desses relés sejam calculados de forma eficiente. Os relés estudados são o relé de sub/sobrefrequência e o relé de taxa de variação da frequência, e o gerador distribuído é do tipo síncrono equipado com controle de tensão. As análises mostraram que no instante em que ocorre um ilhamento os fatores que mais influenciam no desempenho dos relés de proteção anti-ilhamento são as condições de carga e geração, tempo de detecção estabelecido, tipo do relé adotado, ajuste do mesmo e modelo de carga utilizado. / The connection of distributed generators to power subtransmission and distribution networks has been increasing recently due to the technical and economic benefits that such technology can provide. However, there are important technical issues that need to be carefully analyzed before a distributed generator is connected to electrical systems. One issue to be analyzed, which is common sense among utility companies, is the anti-islanding protection, whose main goal is to detect unintentional islanding and, automatically, disconnect the distributed generators within a required time-interval. In this context, this work will analyze the performance of anti-islanding protection relays in face of different load types. With this study, one intend to get support for adjusting these relays efficiently. The relays studied in this work are the under/over frequency and the rate of change of frequency relays, and the distributed generator is a synchronous machine equipped with an automatic voltage regulator. The analyzes showed that the moment a islanding occurs the most important factors influencing the performance of relays anti-islanding protection are the conditions of load and generation, detection time set, type and relay setting adopted and load model.

Orientador: Prof. Dr. Ricardo Caneloi dos Santos / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do ABC, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Elétrica, 2015. / Com a expansão e o crescimento das redes elétricas, surge a necessidade de usar novas fontes de energia para suprir toda a demanda requerida pelos consumidores. Para atender esta demanda, geradores de pequeno porte (GDs) são instalados ao longo das redes elétricas, para assim aproveitar as diversas fontes de energia que se encontram espalhadas pelo país. No entanto, para conectar estes GDs nas redes elétricas é preciso considerar o evento de ilhamento. Uma condição de ilhamento ocorre quando uma parte do sistema de potência fica ilhado eletricamente da rede da concessionária, podendo causar assim sérios problemas à qualidade da energia suprida aos consumidores. Em virtude da dificuldade, diante de algumas condições de operação, em diferenciar uma situação de ilhamento de outros eventos transitórios que ocorrem em uma rede elétrica, se faz necessária a busca por novos métodos de detecção de ilhamento, em alternativa aos métodos tradicionais. Neste trabalho é apresentado o estudo de um algoritmo baseado em Redes Neurais Artificiais (RNAs) para a detecção de ilhamento de geradores distribuídos. O presente algoritmo detecta as condições de ilhamento ao analisar os sinais de tensão da barra do GD, por meio de uma RNA do tipo Multilayer Perceptron (MLP). Baseando-se no algoritmo estudado, é proposta uma arquitetura de relé digital para ser implementada em hardware utilizando o software LabVIEW e os chassis cDAQ-9172 e cRIO-9073 (plataformas comerciais de hardware). O algoritmo implementado em hardware foi avaliado com sinais elétricos reais e mostrou-se adequado para a detecção de ilhamento na rede elétrica adotada. Um estudo sobre a implementação do algoritmo com diferentes tipos de plataformas (real time e não real time) e com diferentes taxas de amostragem foi desenvolvido, permitindo avaliar precisamente a relação "recurso de hardware x precisão dos resultados". / Since the power demand is increasing, additional electrical power sources are required to properly supply all consumers. To meet this new increased demand small generators (DGs) are installed in the power grid, thus allowing to use electrical power sources available around the country. However, to connect such DGs in the power grid the islanding event must be considered. An islanding condition takes place when a section of the grid is inadvertently isolated from the utility, thus resulting in problems related to the power quality delivered to the consumers, among others. Depending on the operational condition, it is a complex task to distinguish an islanding situation from other possible events in the power system, new methods are needed to develop this task. This work presents an islanding detection algorithm based on artificial neural network (ANN), more specifically by using a multilayer perceptron (MLP). Considering the presented algorithm a digital relay architecture is proposed to be implemented in hardware by using the software LabVIEW and its commercial platforms (cDAQ-9172 and cRIO-9073). The proposed algorithm was evaluated in hardware using real signals and its expected behavior was checked. Besides, a study considering different sampling rates and different types of hardware (real time and not real time) platforms was developed, thus allowing to precisely verify the relation "hardware x accuracy".

Le développement massif des énergies renouvelables intermittentes dans les systèmes de puissance affecte le fonctionnement des systèmes électriques. En raison des techniques limitées et des investissements nécessaires pour maintenir le niveau de sécurité électrique actuel, les questions liées à l'envoi, à la stabilité statique et dynamique pourraient arrêter le développement de ces sources. Le sujet de la thèse est de développer un outil pour mesurer l'incertitude sur la disponibilité de la puissance produite par les générateurs photovoltaïques dans un réseau urbain. Premièrement, l'incertitude est modélisée par l'étude de la nature incertaine de la PV énergie production et de la charge. Avec les méthodes stochastiques, on calcule la réserve de puissance (OR) un jour d'avance en tenant compte d'un indice de risque de fiabilité associé. Ensuite, l'OR est distribué en différents générateurs (générateurs photovoltaïques actifs et micro-turbines à gaz). Afin de minimiser le coût opérationnel total et/ou les émissions équivalentes de CO2, une planification optimale et une répartition quotidienne de l'OR dans différents générateurs d'énergie sont mises en œuvre. Enfin, un logiciel libre «Un système de gestion de l'énergie convivial et un superviseur de la planification opérationnelle» est développé à partir de l'interface utilisateur graphique de Matlab pour conceptualiser le fonctionnement global du système. / The massive development of intermittent renewable energy technologies in power systems affects the operation of electrical systems. Due to technical limitations and investments needed to maintain the current electrical security level, issues related to dispatching, static and dynamic stability could stop the development of these distributed renewable energy sources (RES). The subject of the PhD is to develop a tool to study the uncertainties of PV power and load forecasting in an urban network. Firstly, the uncertainties are modeled by studying the uncertainty nature of PV power and load. With stochastic methods, the day-ahead operating reserve (OR) is quantified by taking into account an associated reliability risk index. Then the OR is dispatched into different power generators (active PV generators and micro gas turbines). To minimize the microgrid total operational cost and/or equivalent CO2 emissions, day-ahead optimal operational planning and dispatching of the OR into different power generators is implemented. Finally, a freeware “A User-friendly Energy Management System and Operational Planning Supervisor” is developed based on the Matlab GUI to conceptualize the overall system operation