As descargas atmosféricas estão entre as principais causas de distúrbios nos sistemas elétricos, provocando sobretensões e ocasionando uma parcela significativa das interrupções não programadas. Tais distúrbios são cada vez mais percebidos pelos consumidores, ocasionando desde o mau funcionamento até a queima de aparelhos e equipamentos eletro-eletrônicos residenciais, comerciais e industriais. Antigamente eletromecânicos, tais aparelhos são atualmente, em grande parte, produzidos com componentes semicondutores, o que os torna mais sensíveis a interferências. As descargas atmosféricas também apresentam um agravante de, salvo raras exceções, não serem registradas nos bancos de dados das concessionárias, ao contrário das operações de manobra, faltas e variações de carga na rede de distribuição. Essa situação contribui para os conflitos cada vez mais freqüentes entre consumidores e empresas de energia a respeito dos pedidos de indenização por danos em aparelhos elétricos (PID). Dada a relevância do tema, muitos estudos têm sido realizados ao longo dos últimos anos, sem entretanto esclarecer todos os aspectos necessários para a minimização desses problemas. Neste trabalho são avaliadas as amplitudes e formas de onda das sobretensões transferidas à rede de baixa tensão via transformador quando da ocorrência de surtos no primário. Esses surtos podem ser oriundos de descargas diretas na rede primária ou decorrentes de descargas em suas proximidades. O estudo visa a obtenção de informações tendo em vista a melhoria do desempenho das redes de distribuição e conseqüentemente a minimização dos danos causados aos consumidores. Nas simulações, realizadas através do programa ATP (“Alternative Transients Program”), são consideradas linhas com configurações típicas, bem como modelos de comprovada validade para representação dos isoladores de média e de baixa tensão e do transformador de distribuição. O trabalho analisa a influência, nas sobretensões, de diversos parâmetros, como por exemplo amplitude e forma de onda da corrente da descarga, ponto da incidência da descarga, resistência de terra e presença de dispositivos de proteção contra surtos. Os resultados apresentados constituem-se em importantes subsídios para a definição de critérios de instalação de dispositivos de proteção contra surtos em redes de baixa tensão. / Lightning discharges are among the main causes of disturbances in electrical systems, causing overvoltages and leading to a significant portion of unscheduled interruptions. Such disturbances are increasingly noticed by consumers, causing from malfunction to the burnt-out of electrical-electronic devices and equipment in homes, businesses and industries. Formerly electromechanical, such devices currently are, in their majority, produced with semiconductors, what makes them more sensitive to interferences. Lightning discharges also present the aggravation of not being recorded in power suppliers’ databases, but for seldom exceptions, as opposed to switching operations, failures and charge variations in the distribution network. This situation contributes for the increasingly frequent conflicts among consumers and power companies regarding indemnity claims due to damages to electrical devices. Given the subject’s significance, many studies have been conducted along the past years, not explaining, however, all the aspects required to minimize those problems. On this work, the amplitudes and waveforms of overvoltages on medium and low voltage lines are evaluated upon the incidence of direct discharges on the primary. The voltages transferred to the low voltage side are also evaluated in case of strikes in the vicinity of the line. The study intends to obtain information in order to achieve a performance improvement of distribution networks and, as a consequence, the reduction of damages to consumers to a minimum. In the simulations conducted through ATP (“Alternative Transients Program”), lines with typical configurations are considered and models of proven validity are used to represent the low and medium voltage insulators and the distribution transformer. The work analyses the effect of several parameters on the overvoltages, such as amplitude and waveform of the stroke current, lightning strike point, grounding resistance and existence of surge protective devices. The results presented constitute an important foundation to define the installation criteria of surge protective devices on low voltage networks.

The diploma thesis focuses on optimization of collection service distribution routes in specific company in Moravia region. Failure to evaluate the effects of transportation organization can lead to inefficient planning of routes, which can in turn lead to time or financial losses. Professional approach to distribution route planning leads to a smooth operation of the collection service and to a successful compliance with the evaluation criteria. At first, the diploma thesis will analyse and evaluate the current condition using the evaluation criteria and then it will attempt to propose new solution to improve the current state of affairs.

O objetivo deste trabalho consiste em apresentar o projeto de um sistema especialista que visa auxiliar nos procedimentos envolvidos com a especificação de pára-raios de óxido de zinco para proteção de transformadores frente às descargas atmosféricas, bem como permitir que a análise do comportamento dos surtos de tensão de origem atmosférica que incidem em determinada área de concessão possa ser executada de forma detalhada e sistemática. Para tanto, o sistema especialista desenvolvido faz a integração eficiente de abordagens e técnicas que levam em consideração os aspectos característicos das descargas atmosféricas, as análises experimentais representativas do fenômeno e os modelos matemáticos que permitam mapear todo o processo de desencadeamento das descargas atmosféricas. / The objective of this study consists of presenting an expert system that assists the procedures involved with the protection specification of transformers against atmospheric discharges, allowing also to analyze in a detailed and systematic way the behavior of the respective voltage transients that are generated at the supplying area. For such purpose, the expert system developed in this research makes the efficient integration of approaches and techniques that take into account the characteristic aspects of the atmospheric discharges, the experimental analyses that represent the phenomenon and the mathematical models that allow to map the process involved with the formation of the lightning.

O objetivo deste trabalho consiste em apresentar o projeto de um sistema especialista que visa auxiliar nos procedimentos envolvidos com a especificação de pára-raios de óxido de zinco para proteção de transformadores frente às descargas atmosféricas, bem como permitir que a análise do comportamento dos surtos de tensão de origem atmosférica que incidem em determinada área de concessão possa ser executada de forma detalhada e sistemática. Para tanto, o sistema especialista desenvolvido faz a integração eficiente de abordagens e técnicas que levam em consideração os aspectos característicos das descargas atmosféricas, as análises experimentais representativas do fenômeno e os modelos matemáticos que permitam mapear todo o processo de desencadeamento das descargas atmosféricas. / The objective of this study consists of presenting an expert system that assists the procedures involved with the protection specification of transformers against atmospheric discharges, allowing also to analyze in a detailed and systematic way the behavior of the respective voltage transients that are generated at the supplying area. For such purpose, the expert system developed in this research makes the efficient integration of approaches and techniques that take into account the characteristic aspects of the atmospheric discharges, the experimental analyses that represent the phenomenon and the mathematical models that allow to map the process involved with the formation of the lightning.

The presence of information and communication technologies in the field of energy is increasing every day. Smart grid subject which aims to increase the percentage of energy generation through renewable resources and to make consumers to be involved in grid actively, is gaining importance day by day. In order to provide an effcient and reliable operation of smart grid network, it is necessary to collect relevant parameters from network components via communication infrastructure and to evaluate collected information. Also, with the inclusion of distributed energy sources in the power lines, collection of relevant data becomes important in order to ensure the quality of power. In the scope of this study, to measure current parameters, two DSP based electronic circuits and necessary embedded software have been developed. Data acquisition card is a fixed device which is to be installed to a point on the power line to gather current value samples. By means of being fed through magnetic induction from the line, this part of the system could stay on-line permanently and this allows taking measurements on demand. Sampling of line current is performed through principle of magnetic induction from the line on current sensing instrument which is connected to data-acquisition part. Also by utilization of clamp-on instruments, cutting of energy lines is not needed. Samples received by control card over radio frequency or infrared communication, are evaluated with the help of Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT). Control card can show information about Root mean square (RMS) value and harmonic components of line current and total harmonics distortion (THD) on graphic LCD. Present state of the system was tested in LV and MV environments and shown to be used on distribution lines. The system presented in this study is open to improvements and suggestions to make the system to be able to work on high voltage lines are made.

Σε αυτή την διπλωματική εργασία θα γίνει μελέτη της συμπεριφοράς γραμμών διανομής σε καταπονήσεις από κεραυνούς. Η πτώση ενός κεραυνού είτε απευθείας πάνω στο δίκτυο είτε κοντά σε αυτό προκαλεί βίαιες μετακινήσεις φορτίων μέσα στο δίκτυο υπό την μορφή ρεύματος Ι, πολλών (kA). Τα φορτία οδεύουν κατά μήκος των γραμμών και κατά τις δυο διευθύνσεις με τη μορφή οδεύοντων κυμάτων τάσεως και αντίστοιχου ρεύματος, μέχρις ότου εξαφανισθούν λόγω απόσβεσης ή διαρροής ή διάσπασης της μονωτικής ικανότητας των γραμμών. Η τάση που επάγεται (V=I*Z) συνήθως υπερβαίνει την κρουστική τάση αντοχής των μονώσεων του δικτύου και, αν δεν υπάρχει κατάλληλη προστασία της γραμμής προκαλεί διάσπαση της μόνωσης. Έτσι η στάθμη αντοχής της μόνωσης π.χ. των μετασχηματιστών, των διακοπτών κτλ. του δικτύου, πρέπει να είναι σημαντικά ανώτερη από την στάθμη της τάσεως, που μπορεί να εγγυηθεί η προστασία, που παρέχουν τα μέσα προστασίας. Η ηλεκτρική μόνωση στα περισσότερα συστήματα διανομής δεν είναι ομογενής. Η στάθμη μόνωσης (BIL) σε ένα δοσμένο τμήμα γραμμής μεταβάλλεται ευρέως. Επιπλέον οι γραμμές διανομής είναι σύνθετα ηλεκτρικά κυκλώματα τα οποία δεν είναι εύκολο να προσαρμοστούν σε κάποιο συγκεκριμένο μαθηματικό μοντέλο και να αναλυθούν για να προσδιορίσουμε τη στάθμη μόνωσης. Όμως οι μέθοδοι που προτείνονται σε αυτή τη διπλωματική εργασία είναι μαθηματικά απλές και αποδεικνύουν μόνο κατάλληλες προσεγγίσεις για τον σχεδιασμό των πιο συνήθων γραμμών διανομής. Ο σχεδιασμός της προστασίας από κεραυνούς σε γραμμές διανομής γίνεται λαμβάνοντας υπόψη τα εξής αποτελέσματα. 1. Τον αριθμό των βραχυκυκλωμάτων που θα συμβούν σε μια γραμμή διανομής όταν αυτή πλήττεται άμεσα από κεραυνούς. 2. Τον αριθμό των βραχυκυκλωμάτων που θα συμβούν εξαιτίας των πληγμάτων κεραυνών σε γειτονικό έδαφος. Στο πρώτο μέρος της εργασίας αναφέρεται η ΙΕΕΕ οδηγία για τη συμπεριφορά έναντι κεραυνών των εναέριων γραμμών διανομής ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Σκοπός της είναι να παρουσιάσει εναλλακτικές λύσεις για τη μείωση των βραχυκυκλωμάτων που προκαλούνται από κεραυνό στις εναέριες γραμμές. Συγκεκριμένα θα προσδιοριστεί η συμπεριφορά των εναέριων γραμμών διανομής σε περίπτωση πτώσης κεραυνού (πλήγματα κεραυνών και βραχυκυκλώματα από επαγόμενη τάση), το επίπεδο μόνωσης των γραμμών διανομής, η προστασία των γραμμών διανομής με προστατευτικό αγωγό καθώς επίσης και η προστασία των γραμμών με αλεξικέραυνα. Στο δεύτερο μέρος της εργασίας, θα αναπτυχθεί η καταγραφή σφαλμάτων και βλαβών λόγω πτώσεως κεραυνών στο δίκτυο της Μ.Τ. σε μετασχηματιστές καθώς και στις γραμμές διανομής Μ.Τ. κατά το έτος 2008 στην περιοχή της Πάτρας και γίνεται η συσχέτισή τους με τα θεωρητικά αποτελέσματα. / In the present "Diploma thesis", the behavior of the electric distribution lines under lightning strikes will be studied. A lightning strike,directly on an electric distribution line or indirectly nearby the line, will cause a violent charge movement.Which is actually current (many kA) propagating on the distribution line.The charges are traveling along the distribution line on both directions as traveling waves of voltage and current, until they disappear because of dumping,leakage or breakdown of the insulation ability of the line. The induced voltage (V=I*Z) exceeds the maximum impulse voltage that an insulation can afford, and if a protection is not present an insulation breakdown could be caused. Thus, B.I.L of transformers, switchers e.t.c of a distribution system has to be greater than the voltage level, which the protection can warrantee,and the protection utilities can provide. In most electrical distribution systems the electrical insulation is not homogeneous. B.I.L differentiates for a specific electrical transmission line. Furthermore,distribution lines are complex electrical circuits for which is difficult to be described and analyzed by a mathematical model in order to determine the insulation level. But in this diploma thesis, the mathematical models which are used are simple and proofing only the proper approximations for the design of the most common transmission lines. The design of lightning protection for transmission lines take care the following results. 1.The number of short-circuits that will occur in a transmission line if stroked direct by lightning. 2.The number of short-circuits that will occur in a transmission line if stroked indirect (in the nearby ground) by lightning. In the first part of this thesis is dedicated to the IEEE standard for the behavior of the overheaded electrical transmission lines. The purpose is to present alternative solutions in order to reduce short-circuits caused by lightning strokes. Specifically, the behavior of the overheaded electrical distribution lines when a lighting stroke (lightning stroke and induced voltage),the insulation level of the lines, the protection of the distribution lines with an over-running earth wire and the protection of the lines with surge diverters will be specified. In the second part of this thesis ,the faults and breakdowns caused by lightning strikes on the middle voltage (M.V) transformers and distribution lines,in 2008,at the Patras area will be presented and associated with theoretical results.

As tensões induzidas e sobretensões geradas por descarga atmosféricas diretas e indiretas são um dos principais causadores de desligamentos não programados em redes de transmissão e distribuição. Estes desligamentos comprometem o fornecimento de energia a milhares de consumidores, sobretudo em regiões com constantes variações climáticas e com características orográficas bastante diversificadas, como apresentado no território brasileiro. Desse modo, cada vez mais esses fenômenos são estudados a fim de desenvolverem-se procedimentos para proteção contra distúrbios causados por descargas atmosféricas. Neste contexto, esta pesquisa contempla o estudo do estabelecimento das descargas atmosféricas indiretas e das tensões por elas induzidas em linhas de distribuição, assim como o assentamento das mesmas nestas redes de energia. Não obstante, utilizando-se um software capaz de representar transitórios eletromagnéticos são modelados e implementados um alimentador teste de distribuição e um sistema para estimação de tensões induzidas no domínio do tempo baseado no modelo de Sune Rusck. Também são modelados e implementados para-raios de óxido de zinco, de forma a representar suas características dinâmicas, para proteger a linha sob apreciação dos distúrbios provocados pelas tensões induzidas. A partir de uma análise comparativa entre a operação do sistema de distribuição em regime permanente e frente aos desdobramentos promovidos pelas tensões induzidas, é determinada a melhor configuração, localização e quantificação dos para-raios a serem instalados para proteção do sistema teste. Por meio da avaliação dos resultados das simulações computacionais observa-se a robustez da subestação e quais os ramos e cargas mais suscetíveis a perturbações frente às tensões induzidas, bem como a maior proteção oferecida pelos para-raios aos elementos conectados próximos aos seus nós de alocação. / The induced voltages and overvoltages generated by direct and indirect lightning are a major cause of not programmed shutdowns in transmission and distribution networks. These shutdowns compromise the power supply of thousands of consumers, especially in regions with frequent climatic variations and quite diverse orographic characteristics, as occurred on Brazilian soil. Thus, these phenomena are more and more studied in order to develop procedures for protection against disturbances caused by lightning. In this context, this research focuses on the study of the establishment of indirect lightning and the voltage induced by them on distribution lines, as well as their settlement on energy networks. However, using a software able to represent electromagnetic transients, a distribution test feeder and a system for estimating induced voltages in the time domain based on the Sune Rusck model are modeled and implemented. In addition, metal oxide surge arresters are modeled and implemented to represent its dynamic characteristics, in order to protect the line under consideration of disturbances caused by induced voltages. From a comparative analysis between the operation of the distribution system in steady state and facing the developments promoted by induced voltages, it is determined the best configuration, as well as the location and quantification of the surge arrester to be installed to protect the test system. Through evaluation of the results of computer simulations, it is observed the robustness of the substation and which branches and loads are more susceptible to the disturbances facing the induced voltages, and the greater protection offered by the surge arresters elements connected near to its nodes allocation.

As tensões induzidas e sobretensões geradas por descarga atmosféricas diretas e indiretas são um dos principais causadores de desligamentos não programados em redes de transmissão e distribuição. Estes desligamentos comprometem o fornecimento de energia a milhares de consumidores, sobretudo em regiões com constantes variações climáticas e com características orográficas bastante diversificadas, como apresentado no território brasileiro. Desse modo, cada vez mais esses fenômenos são estudados a fim de desenvolverem-se procedimentos para proteção contra distúrbios causados por descargas atmosféricas. Neste contexto, esta pesquisa contempla o estudo do estabelecimento das descargas atmosféricas indiretas e das tensões por elas induzidas em linhas de distribuição, assim como o assentamento das mesmas nestas redes de energia. Não obstante, utilizando-se um software capaz de representar transitórios eletromagnéticos são modelados e implementados um alimentador teste de distribuição e um sistema para estimação de tensões induzidas no domínio do tempo baseado no modelo de Sune Rusck. Também são modelados e implementados para-raios de óxido de zinco, de forma a representar suas características dinâmicas, para proteger a linha sob apreciação dos distúrbios provocados pelas tensões induzidas. A partir de uma análise comparativa entre a operação do sistema de distribuição em regime permanente e frente aos desdobramentos promovidos pelas tensões induzidas, é determinada a melhor configuração, localização e quantificação dos para-raios a serem instalados para proteção do sistema teste. Por meio da avaliação dos resultados das simulações computacionais observa-se a robustez da subestação e quais os ramos e cargas mais suscetíveis a perturbações frente às tensões induzidas, bem como a maior proteção oferecida pelos para-raios aos elementos conectados próximos aos seus nós de alocação. / The induced voltages and overvoltages generated by direct and indirect lightning are a major cause of not programmed shutdowns in transmission and distribution networks. These shutdowns compromise the power supply of thousands of consumers, especially in regions with frequent climatic variations and quite diverse orographic characteristics, as occurred on Brazilian soil. Thus, these phenomena are more and more studied in order to develop procedures for protection against disturbances caused by lightning. In this context, this research focuses on the study of the establishment of indirect lightning and the voltage induced by them on distribution lines, as well as their settlement on energy networks. However, using a software able to represent electromagnetic transients, a distribution test feeder and a system for estimating induced voltages in the time domain based on the Sune Rusck model are modeled and implemented. In addition, metal oxide surge arresters are modeled and implemented to represent its dynamic characteristics, in order to protect the line under consideration of disturbances caused by induced voltages. From a comparative analysis between the operation of the distribution system in steady state and facing the developments promoted by induced voltages, it is determined the best configuration, as well as the location and quantification of the surge arrester to be installed to protect the test system. Through evaluation of the results of computer simulations, it is observed the robustness of the substation and which branches and loads are more susceptible to the disturbances facing the induced voltages, and the greater protection offered by the surge arresters elements connected near to its nodes allocation.

O conceito de preservação ambiental dos dias atuais não permite que haja exageros na utilização dos bens naturais, fazendo com que as pessoas se adaptem e reduzam a utilização, ou promovam a reciclagem de materiais. Nessa conjuntura, esse trabalho de doutorado versa sobre a especificação e a necessidade de se obter novos padrões estruturais e elétricos de cruzetas a serem utilizados nas redes de distribuição de 15 kV e procurará desenvolver opções compatíveis com a preservação do meio ambiente. Neste sentido, o principal foco está direcionado à definição de novas geometrias para as cruzetas de madeira, induzindo a uma redução direta na utilização das madeiras retiradas de florestas tropicais. Cabe colocar que quando da proposição de uma nova geometria, todos os aspectos elétricos e mecânicos relacionados à definição deste novo padrão devem ser descritos e comprovados em termos da viabilidade prática e t´técnica de aplicação, dispondo-se de várias análises e procedimentos de testes que o garantam frente às possíveis operações que o sistema elétrico, na classe de tensão de 15 kV, venha a enfrentar. Na realização do trabalho, utilizou-se três softwares, o Alternative Transients Program (ATP), o FLUX 3D e o DIgSILENT PowerFactory, para as simulações dos transitórios eletromagnéticos, simulações de campos elétricos e análises de desempenho das linhas, respectivamente. Pela metodologia aplicada, os resultados observados ressaltam uma considerável margem de segurança no comprimento da estrutura da cruzeta atualmente empregada em campo, permitindo a diminuição desejada e confiável para um modelo alternativo. / The current concept of environmental preservation does not allow any exaggeration in the use of natural resources, leading people to adapt themselves and reduce the use, or promote the recycling of materials. At this juncture, this doctoral work focuses on the specification and the need to obtain new structural and electrical patterns for crossarms to be used in 15 kV distribution networks and seek to develop compatible options with the preservation of the environment. In this sense, the main focus is directed toward the definition of new geometries for wood crossarms, inducing an evident reduction in the use of wood taken from tropical forests. It is important to place that when a new geometry is proposed, all electrical and mechanical aspects related to the definition of this new pattern should be described and demonstrated in terms of practicability and technic of application, arranging various analyzes and testing procedures that guarantee it against the possible operations that the electrical system with voltage rating of 15 kV can be face. In carrying out the work, three softwares (ATP, FLUX 3D e DIgSILENT) were used for the simulation of electromagnetic transients, the simulation of electric fields and analysis of performance of the lines, respectively. For the methodology applied, the observed results highlight a significant safety margin in the length of the crossarm structure currently employed in the field, allowing the desired and reliable reduction for an alternative model.

O conceito de preservação ambiental dos dias atuais não permite que haja exageros na utilização dos bens naturais, fazendo com que as pessoas se adaptem e reduzam a utilização, ou promovam a reciclagem de materiais. Nessa conjuntura, esse trabalho de doutorado versa sobre a especificação e a necessidade de se obter novos padrões estruturais e elétricos de cruzetas a serem utilizados nas redes de distribuição de 15 kV e procurará desenvolver opções compatíveis com a preservação do meio ambiente. Neste sentido, o principal foco está direcionado à definição de novas geometrias para as cruzetas de madeira, induzindo a uma redução direta na utilização das madeiras retiradas de florestas tropicais. Cabe colocar que quando da proposição de uma nova geometria, todos os aspectos elétricos e mecânicos relacionados à definição deste novo padrão devem ser descritos e comprovados em termos da viabilidade prática e t´técnica de aplicação, dispondo-se de várias análises e procedimentos de testes que o garantam frente às possíveis operações que o sistema elétrico, na classe de tensão de 15 kV, venha a enfrentar. Na realização do trabalho, utilizou-se três softwares, o Alternative Transients Program (ATP), o FLUX 3D e o DIgSILENT PowerFactory, para as simulações dos transitórios eletromagnéticos, simulações de campos elétricos e análises de desempenho das linhas, respectivamente. Pela metodologia aplicada, os resultados observados ressaltam uma considerável margem de segurança no comprimento da estrutura da cruzeta atualmente empregada em campo, permitindo a diminuição desejada e confiável para um modelo alternativo. / The current concept of environmental preservation does not allow any exaggeration in the use of natural resources, leading people to adapt themselves and reduce the use, or promote the recycling of materials. At this juncture, this doctoral work focuses on the specification and the need to obtain new structural and electrical patterns for crossarms to be used in 15 kV distribution networks and seek to develop compatible options with the preservation of the environment. In this sense, the main focus is directed toward the definition of new geometries for wood crossarms, inducing an evident reduction in the use of wood taken from tropical forests. It is important to place that when a new geometry is proposed, all electrical and mechanical aspects related to the definition of this new pattern should be described and demonstrated in terms of practicability and technic of application, arranging various analyzes and testing procedures that guarantee it against the possible operations that the electrical system with voltage rating of 15 kV can be face. In carrying out the work, three softwares (ATP, FLUX 3D e DIgSILENT) were used for the simulation of electromagnetic transients, the simulation of electric fields and analysis of performance of the lines, respectively. For the methodology applied, the observed results highlight a significant safety margin in the length of the crossarm structure currently employed in the field, allowing the desired and reliable reduction for an alternative model.