A silicon interposer platform with microfluidic cooling is proposed for high-performance computing systems. The key components and technologies for the proposed platform, including electrical and fluidic microbumps, microfluidic vias and heat sinks, and simultaneous flip-chip bonding of the electrical and fluidic microbumps, are developed and demonstrated. Fine-pitch electrical microbumps of 25 µm diameter and 50 µm pitch, fluidic vias of 100 µm diameter, and annular-shaped fluidic microbumps of 150 µm inner diameter and 210 µm outer diameter were fabricated and bonded. Electrical and fluidic tests were conducted to verify the bonding results. Moreover, the thermal and signaling benefits of the proposed platform were evaluated based on thermal measurements and simulations, and signaling simulations. Compared to the conventional air cooling, significant reductions in system temperature and thermal coupling are achieved with the proposed platform. Moreover, the signaling performance is improved due to the reduced temperature, especially for long interconnects on the silicon interposer. A numerical power distribution network (PDN) simulator is developed based on distributed circuit models for on-die power/ground grids, package- and board- level power/ground planes, and the finite difference method. The simulator enables power supply noise simulation, including IR-drop and simultaneous switching noise, for a full chip with multiple blocks of different power, decoupling capacitor, and power/ground pad densities. The distributed circuit model is further extended to include TSVs to enable simulations for 3D PDN. The integration of package- and board- level power/ground planes enables co-simulation of die-package-board PDN and exploration of new PDN configurations.

The main purpose of this thesis was to develop a printed circuit board for Autoliv Electronics AB. This circuit board should be placed in their test equipment to support some of their camera vision systems used in cars. The main task was to combine the existing hardware into one module. To be able to achieve this, the most important factors in designing a printed circuit board was considered. A satisfying power distribution network is the most crucial one. This was accomplished by using decoupling capacitors to achieve low enough impedance for all circuits. Calculations and simulations were executed for all integrated circuits to find the correct size and numbers of capacitors. The impedance of the circuit board was tested with a network analyzer to confirm that the impedance were low enough, which was the case. System functionality was never tested completely, due to delivery problems with some external equipment.

Enticed by the promise of larger sales and better access to customers, consumer goods compa- nies (CGCs) are increasingly looking to evade traditional retailers and reach their customers directly–with direct-to-customer (DTC) policy. DTC trend has emerged to have major im- pact on logistics operations and distribution channels. It oers significant opportunities for CGCs and wholesale brands to better control their supply chain network by circumventing the middlemen or retailers. However, to do so, CGCs may need to develop their omni-channel strategies and fortify their supply chains parameters, such as fulfillment, inventory flow, and goods distribution. This may give rise to changes in the supply chain network at all strategic, tactical and operational levels. Motivated by recent interests in DTC trend, this master thesis considers the time-evolving supply chain system of an international healthcare company with preordained configuration. The input is bottleneck part of the company’s distribution network and involves 20% ≠ 25% of its total market. A mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) multiperiod optimization model is developed aiming to make tactical decisions for designing the distribution network, or more specifically, for determining the best strategy for distributing the products from manufacturing plant to primary distribution center and/or regional distribution centers and from them to customers. The company has got one manufacturing site (Mfg), one primary distribution center (PDP) and three dierent regional distribution centers (RDPs) worldwide, and the customers can be supplied from dierent plants with various transportation modes on dierent costs and lead times. The company’s motivation is to investigate the possibility of reduction in distribution costs by in-time supplying most of their demand directly from the plants. The model selects the best option for each customer by making trade-os among criteria involving distribution costs and lead times. Due to the seasonal variability and to account the market fluctuability, the model considers the full time horizon of one year. The model is analyzed and developed step by step, and its functionality is demonstrated by conducting experiments on the distribution network from our case study. In addition, the case study distribution network topology is utilized to create random instances with random parameters and the model is also evaluated on these instances. The computational experiments on instances show that the model finds good quality solutions, and demonstrate that significant cost reduction and modality improvement can be achieved in the distribution network. Using one-year actual data, it has been shown that the ratio of direct shipments could substantially improve. However, there may be many factors that can impact the results, such as short-term decisions at operational level (like scheduling) as well as demand fluctuability, taxes, business rules etc. Based on the results and managerial considerations, some possible extensions and final recommendations for distribution chain are oered. Furthermore, an extensive sensitivity analysis is conducted to show the eect of the model’s parameters on its performance. The sensitivity analysis employs a set of data from our case study and randomly generated data to highlight certain features of the model and provide some insights regarding its behaviour.

Qu'est-ce qu'un réseau de distribution ? L'interrogation peut surprendre tant cette notion semble aujourd'hui incontournable. Pourtant force est de constater que la notion de réseau de distribution n'est pas encore parvenue à faire consensus. La première partie de la recherche a pour objectif d'éprouver chacun des fondements proposés. Fondé sur un groupe de contrats, il dévoile son aspect institutionnel à travers l'existence de normes privées, de relations de pouvoir et du partage d'une identité. Ces éléments invitent à y voir une communauté organisée autour d'un intérêt commun ayant une existence distincte de celle des membres. Pourtant, l'analyse du réseau de distribution empêche de considérer qu'il constitue une telle communauté. Dès lors, la recherche de la nature juridique du réseau de distribution permet d'avancer que cette notion est irréductible aux catégories juridiques existantes. La deuxième partie de la recherche affirme les particularismes de la notion. Le réseau de distribution est caractérisé par une synergie originale. Son régime juridique se construit sur un arbitrage entre les divers intérêts concernés par l'existence de cette structure. Ces constats permettent d'avancer qu'il constitue une notion propice à l'élaboration d'une catégorie juridique regroupant les organisations multipartites qui, fondées sur un groupe de contrats et une relation de pouvoir sans subordination, sont caractérisées par une synergie consistant en une affectation de moyens matériels et humains au développement simultané d'une activité économique globale et des activités de chacun des membres, créant une complémentarité, entre leurs intérêts personnels convergents mais différents, source d'un intérêt collectif. / What is a distribution network ? The question may surprise a few given the acceptance of the notion. However, we have to notice that this notion has not reached its quest of identity. The first part of the research aims at verifying the founding principles of each theory. Actually, it appears that the distribution network finds its place beyond the group of contracts qualification and below the qualification of Institution. Based on a group of contracts, it reveals its institutional aspects through the existence of private standards, relations of power and the sharing of an identity. These elements invite to see a community there organized around a public interest having an existence different from that of the members. Nevertheless, the analysis of the distribution network prevents from considering that it constitutes such a community. From then on, the research for the legal nature of the distribution network allows to move forward that this notion is inflexible in the existing legal categories.The second part of the research aims at asserting the particularisms of the notion of distribution network. The distribution network is characterized by an original synergy. Its legal regime builds itself on an arbitration between the diverse interests concerned by the existence of this structure. These reports allow to move forward that it constitutes a notion convenient to the elaboration of a legal category gathering multipartite organization, based on a group of contracts and a relationship without subordination, that are symbolized by a synergy that involves the allocation of material and human resources to the simultaneous development of both the global economic activity and the activity of each member of the group, creating a synergy between their different but convergent own personal interests, source of mutual interest.

Esta dissertação apresenta uma metodologia de otimização do fluxo de potência em sistemas elétricos de subtransmissão utilizando duas técnicas da Computação Evolutiva, os Algoritmos Genéticos e as Estratégias Evolutivas. A metodologia decompõe o problema em duas partes e o trata seqüencialmente. A primeira parte procede com a otimização do fluxo de potência ativa e a segunda com a otimização do fluxo de potência reativa. São apresentadas as características e estruturas básicas dos Algoritmos Genéticos e das Estratégias Evolutivas. A técnica dos Algoritmos Genéticos é implementada no modelo de otimização do fluxo de potência ativa e a técnica das Estratégias Evolutivas no modelo de otimização do fluxo de potência reativa. As variáveis de controle dos modelos desenvolvidos são, respectivamente, os estados dos dispositivos de seccionamento e os níveis de tensão dos barramentos dos pontos de fronteira, associadas ao sistema analisado. Analisam-se os sistemas elétricos de subtransmissão que contêm múltiplos pontos de fronteira (conexão) com a Rede Básica e diversas possibilidades de configuração operativa. A metodologia proposta é aplicada a um sistema elétrico de subtransmissão real a fim de minimizar o custo dos encargos de uso dos sistemas de transmissão. Os resultados obtidos mostram a eficácia dos algoritmos desenvolvidos na busca das soluções desejadas. / This dissertation presents a power flow optimization methodology on subtransmission electric systems using two techniques of Evolutionary Computation, namely the Genetic Algorithms and the Evolution Strategies. The methodology splits the problem into two parts and treats it separately. On the first step it proceeds to optimize the active power flow and on the second step to optimize the reactive power flow. Characteristics and basic structures of the Genetic Algorithms and the Evolution Strategies are shown. The Genetic Algorithms technique is implemented on the active power flow optimization model and the Evolution Strategies technique on the reactive power flow optimization model. The control variables of developed models are, respectively, the switch states and the border point bar voltage levels, associated to the analyzed system. The subtransmission electric systems that have multiple border (connection) points to the Basic Network and many operative configuration possibilities are analyzed. The proposed methodology is applied to a real subtransmission electric system in order to minimizes the transmission system use duty costs. The obtained results show the efficacy of the developed algorithms in the search of desired solutions.

A utilização crescente de equipamentos eletro-eletrônicos sensíveis a interferências e a adoção de novos critérios para avaliação da qualidade da energia fornecida têm resultado em um aumento do número de pesquisas desenvolvidas com o objetivo de se obter informações a respeito das características das sobretensões em redes de baixa tensão. Isto motivou a realização deste trabalho, que teve por objetivo analisar as sobretensões causadas por descargas atmosféricas próximas a redes secundárias. O estudo trata inicialmente das tensões transferidas para a rede de baixa tensão, via transformador, devido a tensões induzidas no primário. Para tal são utilizados resultados experimentais obtidos em modelo de linhas de distribuição em escala reduzida e também medições de tensões induzidas por descargas naturais em uma linha especialmente construída para estudo do fenômeno. Com o uso de um modelo de transformador de distribuição típico, de validade comprovada para avaliação de surtos transferidos, são analisadas as tensões transferidas para a rede secundária considerando-se diversas formas de onda no primário. Posteriormente são calculadas as tensões induzidas nas redes de baixa tensão por descargas incidentes em suas proximidades através do 'Extended Rusck Model' (ERM) – modelo de validade comprovada por meio de centenas de comparações entre tensões induzidas medidas e calculadas. O trabalho discute as influências, nas tensões induzidas, do modo de representação do transformador e das cargas conectadas ao secundário, valor da resistência de terra, amplitude e velocidade de propagação da corrente no canal, etc. A comparação entre as tensões induzidas em linhas convencionais e multiplexadas também é realizada. É analisado também o uso de dispositivos de proteção contra surtos na rede multiplexada tendo em vista a redução das amplitudes das tensões induzidas. Por fim são feitas comparações entre tensões induzidas e tensões transferidas via transformador à rede secundária considerando a mesma descarga atmosférica. / The growing use of electric and electronic equipment prone to electromagnetic interferences and the adoption of new criteria for evaluating the quality of the power supplied have increased the number of studies developed in order to obtain information regarding the characteristics of overvoltages on low-voltage networks. Such fact has motivated the development of this work, which aimed at analyzing overvoltages caused by lightning discharges near secondary networks. The study first covers voltages transferred to the low-voltage network through the transformer due to induced voltages on its primary terminals. In order to accomplish that, experimental results obtained on a reduced scale model are used, as well as measurements of natural lightning induced voltages on a line specially built to study the phenomena. The voltages transferred to the secondary network, considering several waveforms on the primary, are analyzed by using a typical distribution transformer model, proven valid for evaluating transferred surges. The study then presents the calculation of voltages induced on low-voltage networks by discharges on their vicinity through the 'Extended Rusck Model' (ERM) – a model that has been validated by hundreds of comparisons between measured and calculated induced voltages. This work discusses the influences on induced voltages of the manner of representing the transformer and the loads connected to the secondary, as well as grounding resistance, amplitude and stroke current propagation speed, etc. Comparisons between lightning induced voltages on open wire lines and on lines with twisted conductors are also made. The use of surge protective devices on lines with twisted conductors is analyzed, and the reduction of induced voltage amplitudes is investigated. Finally, induced voltages and voltages transferred to the secondary network through a transformer are compared, considering the same lightning discharge.

Countries around the world set ambitious targets to substantially reduce their greenhouse gasses emissions, including those which come from electricity sector. This requires a transition to a low carbon electricity generation and supply system, which in part, can be met by increasing distributed generation (DG) connection and implementing demand side response (DSR) programme on distribution network. Therefore, the role of distribution network operators (DNOs) in facilitating the connection of new DG and the implementation of DSR programme is vital. In order to encourage DNOs to be more active in the low carbon transition, the energy regulator needs to set up financial incentives for DNOs. Current DG incentive mechanism, which is applied in the UK, aims to incentivise DNOs based on the amount of DG capacity connected to the network. Consequently, in a generation-dominated area, the incentives might not be sufficient to cover the reinforcement required for connecting DGs, which in turn, the output energy from DGs will be excessively curtailed. Therefore, this research proposes a new approach, called energy-based DG incentive mechanism. This mechanism will incentivise DNOs based on the utilization of available DG energy on the network and its relation with the requirement of network reinforcement. In terms of DSR incentives, different mechanisms have been applied in some countries, including Australia and USA. Some of the mechanisms incentivise DNOs based on the investment cost or forgone revenue related to DSR initiatives, as implemented in demand management incentive and rate of return mechanisms. Other mechanisms aim to incentivise DNOs based on the energy savings or avoided costs of supply associated with DSR participation, as implemented in shared savings and avoided cost mechanisms. Those mechanisms operate independently without any correlation between them. Therefore, this research develops a new approach to assess the relation between DSR investment cost and DSR participation, called energy-based DSR incentive mechanism. This mechanism will incentivise DNOs based on the utilization of available DSR energy on the network and its relation with the required investment. Comparing with current incentive mechanisms, both energy-based DG incentive and energy-based DSR incentive can reflect the effectiveness of DNOs to deal with the required investments in association with DG connection and DSR implementation on their network.

Electricity network pricing approaches play a fundamental role in establishing whether providing the network service function is economically beneficial to both the network operators and other stakeholders, namely, network users. Many pricing methodologies have been developed since the late 80‟s. The earlier approaches were not based on economic principle while the latest are directed to being more based on economic principle as the shift is towards deregulated and privatized electric power industry as opposed to the earlier vertically regulated regime. As a result, many such methodologies based on economic principle have emerged and these reflect the investment cost incurred in circuits and transformers to support real and reactive power flow. However, to reflect investment cost incurred for maintaining network voltages in network charges has received very little attention in network charges. Therefore, this research work is aimed to create a charging approach to recover investment cost, by the network operator, for maintaining the network voltages. This thesis presents a new long-run incremental cost (LRIC) pricing approach for distribution networks and demonstrates the course of action of evaluating and allocating the network asset cost in the context of maintaining network voltages. Also, it should be noted that this approach can be used for transmission networks. Firstly, the LRIC-voltage network pricing approach for reflecting the future network VAr compensation assets is proposed. Then, this approach is extended to consider n-1 contingency situation as per statutory requirement that the network should be able to withstand such contingencies in order to enhance reasonable security and reliability in its network. Lastly, this LRIC-voltage network charging methodology is again extended to reflect the charges for existing network VAr compensation assets. In addition, this LRIC-voltage network pricing approach is improved to reflect better the nodal charges as the respective nodal voltage degradation rates, given corresponding load growth rate, are determined based on the P-V curve concept. The advantages of all these incorporate the ability to reflect correct forward-looking charges, to recognize both real and reactive powers, to provide locational charges and to provide charges for both generation and demand customers. In addition, two fundamental studies were conducted to demonstrate the trend in which the LRIC-voltage network charges would follow given different networks and different load growth rates. What set apart the LRIC-voltage network charges are those two parameters. Moreover, with regard to different networks, this was a defining moment as to how the aforementioned charges should be sought given transmission and distribution networks. A pricing software package utilizing load-flow has been developed implementing the proposed LRIC-voltage network pricing methodology and, its extensions. This software can well be utilized by transmission and distribution companies for analyzing their cost. The LRIC-voltage network pricing methodology and its extensions, are all demonstrated on the IEEE 14-bus test system and a practical distribution test network in the South Wales area of England, UK.

Os avanços observados em Sistemas de Distribuição de Água vêm surgindo da necessidade de aumentar a eficiência, a qualidade e segurança do abastecimento de água aos consumidores. Dois desses avanços recentes que podem ser citados são a setorização e a quantificação da confiabilidade. O processo de setorização de um sistema de distribuição de água favorece a sua gestão, uma vez que possibilita maior controle da vazão distribuída e dos limites de fornecimento do serviço, entretanto pode implicar em restrições no abastecimento durante eventos de falhas ou emergências, sendo necessária a avaliação da confiabilidade. Diversos pesquisadores têm buscado uma metodologia coerente e adequada para quantificar a confiabilidade em sistemas de distribuição de água, muitos deles desenvolvendo métricas alternativas que visam simplificar esta definição. O presente trabalho visou investigar métricas alternativas de confiabilidade, propostas na literatura especializada, aplicando-as a estudos de caso para a rede original e após a setorização. Os resultados sugerem a viabilidade de utilização das métricas de confiabilidade como forma de avaliar diferentes níveis de setorização, no que diz respeito à vulnerabilidade do sistema. / Improvements upon Water Distribution Systems have been made under the urge of increasing efficiency, quality and security of water supply to its customers. A couple of recent breakthroughs on Water Distribution Network are partitioning and reliability. Water network partitioning enhances operational management, once it enables higher control of supplied flow and awareness of boundaries regarding each partition. Nevertheless, it can lead to supply restrictions under emergency and failure events, what may require reliability assessment. Several researchers have pursued consistent approach to quantify reliability of Water Distribution Network, many of them proposed surrogate measures which focused on simplifying its measurement. The aim of this work is to look into surrogate reliability measures proposed in the literature and applying them on case studies for its original layout and after proposed partitioning. The results implies the usage feasibility for the reliability measures as a way of evaluating different stages of partitioning, regarding system\'s vulnerability.

Considerando a necessidade do controle mais efetivo dos sistemas de distribuição de água para abastecimento, a calibração constitui etapa fundamental a ser trilhada para garantir a reprodução do comportamento dos sistemas sob as mais diversas condições operacionais. Apesar da importância da calibração e da diversidade de modelos construídos com esse propósito no ambiente acadêmico, essa prática não tem sido amplamente utilizada pelas companhias, que demonstram certa relutância em fazer uso de modelos matemáticos. É interessante, portanto, que os modelos existentes sejam intensivamente testados em sistemas reais para que se possam estabelecer diretrizes para a sua utilização, bem como uma maior confiança no seu emprego. O presente trabalho de pesquisa visou o estudo de aplicação de um modelo especialmente construído para a calibração de sistemas, através do qual é possível identificar variáveis de campo tais como rugosidades, diâmetros, parâmetros do modelo de vazamentos, etc. O modelo empregado é abrangente o suficiente para incorporar vazamentos e demandas variáveis com a pressão. Através dele, foram realizados dois estudos de caso e discutidas as razões pelas quais discrepâncias entre os valores simulados e observados foram detectadas, apesar da consistência das respostas produzidas via simulação. Algumas recomendações são feitas também no sentido de viabilizar estudos dessa natureza que possam produzir ferramental diretamente utilizável pelas concessionárias de água para abastecimento. / Considering the need for more effective control of water supply distribution systems, the calibration constitutes fundamental step to guarantee that the system behavior under several operational conditions can be reproduced. Instead of the importance of calibration and the variety of models built by the academy for this purpose, this practice has not been broadly used by the water industry, which demonstrates certain reluctance regards the use of mathematical models. It is interesting, hence, that existing models are intensively tested in real systems to establish guidelines and consequent confidence in their use. The present research focused on the study of a model especially built for the calibration of water supply systems, through which it is possible identify field variables such as roughness, diameters, parameters of leakage model, etc. The model is comprehensive enough to incorporate leakage and pressure driven demands. Two study cases were analyzed supported by the model and discussed the reasons by which disagreement between simulated and observed data were verified, instead of the consistency of results produced by simulation. Some recommendations are made to become practical this kind of study as useful tool for the water industry.