Paracoccidioides brasiliensis é um fungo dimórfico patogênico agente etiológico da paracoccidioidomicose (PCM), uma micose endêmica no Brasil. A busca por alternativas para reduzir o tempo de tratamento da PCM levou ao desenvolvimento de uma vacina de DNA contendo a sequência do peptídeo P10 de P. brasiliensis. Neste trabalho, avaliamos a geração de células T de memória e células T reguladoras em camundongos imunizados com esta vacina de DNA antes e após o desafio com o fungo, através da análise de seus esplenócitos e linfócitos pulmonares por citometria de fluxo. Os resultados mostram um aumento no percentual de células T reguladoras e de memória no baço e pulmões dos animais imunizados antes e depois de 30, 60 e 120 dias do desafio em comparação com os grupos controle e não imunizado. Outro experimento revelou que o modelo experimental da PCM in vivo é capaz de induzir a expressão de ROR&#947t. Este estudo mostra que nossa vacina de DNA contra a PCM gera células com fenótipo de reguladoras e de memória, caracterizando seu potencial para o tratamento desta micose. / Paracoccidioides brasiliensis is a dimorphic fungal pathogen that is the etiological agent of paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM), a mycosis endemic in Brazil. The search for new alternatives to reduce the duration of PCM treatment led to the development of a DNA vaccine encoding the peptide P10 of P. brasiliensis. Presently, we evaluated the generation of memory and regulatory T cells in mice immunized with this DNA vaccine, before and after the challenge with the fungus by analizing their splenocytes and pulmonary lymphocytes by flow cytometry. The results show an increase in the percentage of regulatory and memory T cells on spleens and lungs of immunized mice before and after 30, 60 and 120 days of challenge compared with the control and untreated groups. Another experiment revealed that the PCM in vivo infection model is capable of inducing ROR&#947t expression. This study demonstrates that our DNA vaccine against PCM generates cells with a regulatory and memory phenotype, which shows its potencial in the treatment of this mycosis.

Chapter Introduction Salmonellae are gram negative bacteria that cause gastroenteritis and entericfever. S. enterica is divided into seven phylogenetic groups, subspecies 1, 2,3a, 3b, and 4, 6, 7. Subspecies1 includes 1,367 serovars, some of which are commonly isolated from infected birds and mammals. The other subspecies mainly colonize cold blooded animals. Salmonella typhimurium, Salmonella typhiandSalmonella enteritidis are some of the serovars, which belong to s.enterica species. S. typhimurium is one of the important causes for food poisoning in humans. It causes typhoid like fever in mice. In immuno compromised patients the infection is often fatal if it is not treated with antibiotics. Clinical features of food poisoning include abdominal pain, vomiting, nausea, abdominal cramps, dehydration etc. S. typhi causes typhoid fever in humans. No other host has been identified for this serovar. Main source of infection is contaminated food and water. No age is exempted but it is less common before2 years. Incubation period is 360 days. Clinical features include stepladder type fever, malaise, headache, hepato splenomegaly, coated tongue, Neutrogena etc. It may be fatal if untreated. Among the serovars of Salmonella infecting humans S. typhimurium and S. typhi are the most important. While S. typhimurium infects many host species including birds and mammals, S. typhi is single host adapted and infects only human. The single host adaptation of S. typhi presents it with the need for establishing are servoir of infection in the community which can serve as a source of fresh infection. Also the single host adaptation of S. typhi has made it a highly specialized pathogen which has evolved certain unique genes needed for human colonization at the same time has lost a set of genes which are needed for survival in other hosts and in the highly variable external environment. This has led to the accumulation of a vast number of pseudo genesin S. Typhi. A comparative study of the two serovars is useful in many ways. Due to varied host defense systems encountered by the two serovars owing to different niche of infection the bacterial counter defense mechanisms are also different. By focusing on the differences between genes involved in the bacterial defense of host immune response we can decipher the role played by various genes in combating the antibacterial host response. Chapter 2 The role of TolA and peptidoglycan modification in detergent resistance of pathogenic Salmonella The major Salmonella serovars that infect human are Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S.typhi) which cause systemic typhoid and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. typhimurium) which cause gastro enteritis. S. typhi resides in the gall bladder during chronic infection and S .typhimurium infects intestine .Thus both pathogens encounter high concentrations of bile and have developed mechanisms to counter it. The Tol Pal complex spanning the outermembrane and the inner cytoplasmic membrane plays an important role in maintaining the stability of the outer membrane and providing detergent resistance. The tolA gene of S. Typhi Is shorter by 27 aminoacid than S. typhimurium. The tolA gene knockout of S. typhimurium and S. typhi differed in their tritonX resistance behavoiur, morphology and low osmolality tolerance. S. typhi tolA was unable to complement the tolA defect in S. typhimurium which could probably due to the difference in the peptidoglycan layer. An analys is of the peptidoglycan modifying genes of both the serovars revealed that dacD, pbgP, ynhG are different. dacD, pbgP genes are pseudogenes in S. typhi and ynhG has a major deletion in S. typhi. Further studies reveal that a double knockout of dacD and pbpG in S. typhimurium makes it sensitive to low osmolality similar to S. typhi. Based on these results we propose a mechanism, where shortening of TolA increases detergent resistance by bringing the outer membrane into closer contact with the peptidoglycan layer, but this is achieved at the cost of reduced Lpp (Bruan’slipoprotein) peptidoglycan linkage which plays a major role in low osmolality tolerance. The pathogen S. typhi is highly adapted to the human host and cannot infect any other host. The single host adaptation and the need to survive in high concentrations of bile have made S. typhi to acquire higher bile resistance at the cost of lowered osmotic tolerance through shortening TolA and reduced Lpp and peptidoglycan binding. Chapter 3 Development of a DNA vaccine against Salmonella The immune response against Salmonella is multifaceted involving both the innate and the adaptive immune system. The characterization of specific Salmonella antigens inducing immune response could critically contribute to the development of epitope based vaccines for Salmonella. We have tried to identify aprotective Tcellepitope (s) of Salmonella, as cell mediated immunity conferred by CD8+T cells is the most crucial subset conferring protective immunity against Salmonella. It being a proven fact that secreted proteins are better in inducing cell mediated immunity than cell surface and cytosolic antigens, we have analyzed all the GenBank annotated Salmonella pathogenicity island 1 and 2 secreted proteins of S. typhimurium and S. typhi. They were subjected to BIMAS and SYFPEITHI analysis to map MHCI and MHC II binding epitopes. The huge profile of possible T cell epitopes obtained from the two classes of secreted proteins were tabulated and using a scoring system that considers the binding affinity and promiscuity of binding to more than one allele, SopB and SifB were chosen for experimental confirmation in murine immunization model. The entire Sop Band SifB genes were cloned into DNA vaccine vectors and were administered along with live attenuated Salmonella and it was found that SopB vaccination reduced the bacterial burden of organs by about 5fold on day4 and day8 after challenge with virulent Salmonella and proved to be a more efficient vaccination strategy than live attenuated bacteria alone. Chapter 4 PCR based diagnosis and Serovar Determination of Blood Borne Salmonella Typhoid fever is becoming an ever increasing threat in the developing countries. We have improved considerably upon the existing PCR based diagnosis method by designing primers against a region which is unique to S. typhiand S. paratyphiA, corresponding to the gene STY0312 in S. typhi and its homolog SPA2476 in S. paratyphiA. An additional set of primers amplify another region in S. typhi CT18 and S. typhiTy2 corresponding to the region between the genes STY0313 toSTY0316 but which is absent in S.paratyphi A. The threat of false negative result arising due to mutation in hypervariable genes has been reduced by targeting a gene unique to typhoidal Salmonella as a diagnostic marker. The amplified region has been tested for genomic stability by amplifying them from clinical is olates of patients from various geographical locations in India, there by showing that this region is potentially stable. These set of primers can also differentiate between S. typhiCT18, S. typhiTy2 and S. paratyphi A which have stable deletions in this specific locus. The PCR assay designed in this study has a sensitivityof95%ascompared to the Widal test which had only 63%. As observed, in certain cases the PCR assay was more sensitive than the blood culture test as the PCR based detection could also detect dead bacteria.

In recent years, heterologous prime-boost vaccination constructs have emerged as a promising strategy to generate broad and protective immunity against a variety of pathogens. The utility of DNA vaccination in priming the immune system, in particular, has improved the immunogenicity of vaccines against difficult pathogens such as HIV-1. In addition, many vaccine formulations include an adjuvant to augment immune responses. However, the mechanisms and profiles of many adjuvants remain largely unknown, particularly in the context of such combination immunization approaches. My thesis research studied the effects of several adjuvants, QS-21, aluminum hydroxide, MPL, and ISCOMATRIX™ adjuvant in the context of a previously described pentavalent HIV-1 Env DNA prime-protein boost vaccine, DP6-001. In a murine model, we quantified HIV antigen-specific humoral and T cell responses, as well as pro-inflammatory serum cytokine and chemokines, both shortly after immunization and at the termination of studies. Our data indicates that each candidate adjuvant generates a unique pattern of biomarkers as well as improved immunogenicity in the context of the DP6-001 DNA prime-protein boost vaccine. Additionally, we examined the impact of several innate signaling pathways on the adaptive immunity raised by DP6-001 and adjuvants, as well as on the unique serum cytokine profiles. These studies provide valuable information in selection of an adjuvant for inclusion in future prime-boost strategies, with the goal of enhancing immunogenicity while minimizing reactogenicity. Furthermore, these studies provided insight about the utility of different current adjuvants in a prime-boost formulation, and the unique immune environment induced by DNA priming.

Despite 30 years of intensive research，an effective human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) vaccine still remains elusive. The desirable immune response capable of providing protection against HIV acquisition is still not clear. The accumulating evidence learned from a recent vaccine efficacy correlate study not only confirmed the importance of antibody responses, but also highlighted potential protective functions of antibodies with a broad repertoire of HIV-1 epitope specificities and a wide range of different antiviral mechanisms. This necessitates a deep understanding of the complexity and diversity of antibody responses elicited by HIV-1 vaccines. My dissertation characterizes antibody response profiles of HIV-1 Env antibodies elicited by several novel immunogens or different immunization regimens, in terms of magnitude, persistence, epitope specificity, binding affinity, and biological function. First, to overcome the challenge of studying polyclonal sera without established assays, we expanded a novel platform to isolate Env-specific Rabbit mAbs (RmAb) elicited by DNA prime-protein boost immunization. These RmAbs revealed diverse epitope specificity and cross-reactivity against multiple gp120 antigens from more than one subtype, and several had potent and broad neutralizing activities against sensitive Tier 1 viruses. Further, structural analysis of two V3 mAbs demonstrated that a slight shift of the V3 epitope might have a dramatic impact on their neutralization activity. All of these observations provide a useful tool to study the induction of a desired type of antibody by different immunogens or different immunization regimens. Since heavily glycosylated HIV Env protein is a critical component of an HIV vaccine, we wanted to determine the impact of the HIV Env-associated glycan shield on antibody responses. We were able to produce Env proteins with a selective and homogeneous pattern of N-glycosylation using a glycoengineered yeast cell line. Antigenicity of these novel Env proteins was examined by well-characterized human mAbs. Immunogenicity studies showed that they were immunogenic and elicited gp120- specific antibody responses. More significantly, sera elicited by glycan-modified gp120 protein immunogens revealed better neutralizing activities and increased diversity of epitopes compared to sera elicited by traditional gp120 produced in Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells. Further, we examined the impact of the delivery order of DNA and protein immunization on antibody responses. We found that DNA prime-protein boost induced a comparable level of Env-specific binding Abs at the peak immunogenicity point to codelivery of DNA. However, antibody responses from DNA prime-protein boost had high avidity and diverse specificities, which improved potency and breadth of neutralizing Abs against Tier 1 viruses. Our data indicate that DNA vaccine priming of the immune system is essential for generation of high-quality antibodies. Additionally, we determined the relative immunogenicity of gp120 and gp160 Env in the context of DNA prime-protein boost vaccination to induce high-quality antibody responses. Immunized sera from gp120 DNA primed animals, but not those primed with gp160 DNA, presented with distinct antibody repertoire specificities, a high magnitude of CD4 binding site-directed binding capabilities as well as neutralizing activities. We confirmed the importance of using the gp120 Env form at the DNA priming phase, which directly determined the quality of antibody response.

La tuberculose est une maladie contagieuse causée par les bactéries appartenant au complexe Mycobacterium tuberculosis. On estime près de neuf millions de nouveaux cas et un million de décès chaque année dans le monde. De plus, approximativement un tiers de la population mondiale est infecté de manière latente, donc à risque de développer la maladie. Le seul vaccin préventif jusqu’à présent disponible est le Bacille de Calmette-Guérin (BCG). Cependant, son efficacité contre la forme pulmonaire de la maladie, contagieuse et plus fréquente chez l’adulte, est extrêmement variable. Le développement de nouveaux vaccins prophylactiques contre la tuberculose est basé sur une stratégie de remplacement ou d’amélioration de l’actuel vaccin BCG. De nombreux candidats vaccins sous-unitaires sont évalués dans un protocole de vaccination de rappel après le BCG. Ce dernier est en effet administré à plus de 80% des nouveau-nés et des nourrissons des populations à haut risque.<p>Le présent travail a eu pour but principal d’étudier une nouvelle approche de vaccination combinant le Bacille de Calmette-Guérin avec des vaccins sous-unitaires à ADN plasmidique dans différents modèles précliniques.<p>Plusieurs hypothèses tentent d’expliquer la faible efficacité du vaccin BCG, comme la faible induction de réponses immunitaires de type cellulaire T CD8+, le déclin de l’immunité protectrice induite au cours du temps, ou son répertoire antigénique limité. Les vaccins à ADN plasmidique induisant de telles réponses, le travail proposé a consisté au développement d’un nouveau protocole de vaccination basé sur la coadministration par la voie intradermique du vaccin BCG formulé avec un vaccin à ADN plasmidique codant pour un antigène mycobactérien. Nous avons observé dans plusieurs modèles murins (adulte et néonatal) une augmentation significative des réponses cellulaires de type CD4+ Th1 et CD8+, ainsi que de la réponse humorale spécifique. L’immunogénicité de cette approche a également été analysée dans un modèle animal de grande taille, à savoir le modèle porcin. Les résultats obtenus indiquent que les vaccins à ADN plasmidique sont capables d’augmenter les réponses spécifiques à l’antigène codé par le plasmide mais également celles spécifiques à d’autres antigènes exprimés par le vaccin BCG. Enfin, dans la deuxième partie du travail, nous avons développé des vaccins plasmidiques codant pour des combinaisons d’antigènes phase-spécifiques de M. tuberculosis et nous avons analysé leur immunogénicité en modèle murin.<p>En conclusion, nous avons montré que la stratégie de coadministration par la voie intradermique du vaccin BCG avec un vaccin à ADN plasmidique encodant des antigènes mycobactériens s’avère être un protocole de vaccination réaliste et efficace pour améliorer l’immunité induite par le vaccin BCG. Elle offre par ailleurs des perspectives pour être appliquée avec des plasmides codant pour des antigènes caractéristiques de la tuberculose latente, peu reconnus après vaccination BCG, pour protéger à la fois contre la tuberculose active d’une primo-infection et contre la réactivation d’une infection latente. / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

A busca por uma construção vacinal contra o HIV-1 é urgente. Os linfócitos T CD4+ têm assumido um papel de destaque no campo de vacinas por participar no controle da replicação do HIV-1, seja auxiliando as funções efetoras de linfócitos T CD8+ e a produção de anticorpos por linfócitos B ou mesmo agindo de forma citotóxica sobre macrófagos infectados. A utilização de sequências consenso do grupo M do HIV-1 é apontada como uma das maneiras de se contornar os problemas relacionados à diversidade viral. Além disso, é preciso construir vacinas que apresentem potencial de induzir respostas imunes com grande cobertura populacional. Com o intuito de induzir respostas amplas de linfócitos T CD4+ contra diversos subtipos do HIV-1 em uma população geneticamente diversa para moléculas HLA-DR, identificamos em nosso trabalho prévio 34 peptídeos promíscuos (previstos de se ligarem a múltiplas moléculas HLA-DR) e conservados da sequência consenso do grupo M do HIV-1. Desenvolvemos uma vacina de DNA codificando 7 peptídeos de Env (HIVenv7) e outra vacina (HIVBr27) codificando os demais 27 peptídeos. A vacina HIVBr27 foi imunogênica em camundongos BALB/c, induzindo uma resposta ampla e polifuncional de linfócitos T CD4+ e CD8+. A vacina HIVenv7 foi pouco imunogênica e mostrou-se capaz de suprimir a resposta induzida pela HIVBr27 em regime de co-imunização. No presente trabalho demonstramos que a imunização com HIVBr27 induz uma resposta imune celular mediada por linfócitos T CD4+ e CD8+ contra peptídeos de diferentes subtipos do HIV-1. Além disso, a imunização com HIVBr27 mostrou-se parcialmente protetora contra a infecção pelo vírus Vaccinia recombinante codificando as proteínas Gag e Pol do HIV-1. Ensaios in vitro demonstraram que os peptídeos codificados pela HIVBr27 se ligam a múltiplas moléculas HLA de classe II e são reconhecidos por células de pacientes infectados pelo HIV-1. Demonstramos também que a vacina HIVenv7 não possui propriedades imunossupressoras consistentes, contrariando os resultados obtidos previamente. Os peptídeos codificados pela HIVenv7 se ligaram a múltiplas moléculas HLA de classe II, mas apresentaram baixa frequência de reconhecimento por células de pacientes infectados pelo HIV-1. Acreditamos que a vacina HIVBr27 possui potencial de induzir uma resposta imune de grande cobertura populacional e direcionada a diferentes variantes do HIV-1. Por outro lado, a vacina HIVenv7 se mostrou pouco imunogênica e não deve ser utilizada em estudos futuros / The search for an HIV-1 vaccine construct is urgent. The CD4+ T cells have assumed a prominent role in the vaccine field participating in the control of HIV-1 replication either by helping CD8+ T cell effector function and B cell-mediated antibody production or by acting as citotoxic cells on infected macrophages. The use of HIV-1 M-group consensus sequences is pointed as an alternative to overcome viral diversity. Besides, it is necessary to construct vaccines that would potentially induce immune responses with broad population coverage. Intending to induce a broad CD4+ T-cell immune response against different HIV-1 subtypes in a population bearing diverse HLA-DR molecules we have previously identified 34 promiscuous peptides (potentially binding to multiple HLA-DR molecules) and conserved within the HIV-1 M-group consensus sequence. We construct a DNA vaccine encoding 7 Env peptides (HIVenv7) and another vaccine (HIVBr27) encoding 27 peptides. The HIVBr27 vaccine was immunogenic in BALB/c mice, inducing a broad and polyfunctional CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell response. The HIVenv7 vaccine was much less immunogenic and suppressed HIVBr27-induced immune responses when co-immunized. Here, we have shown that HIVBr27 immunization leads to a cross-clade CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell immune response. Besides, HIVBr27 immunization has partially protected mice challenged with a recombinant Vaccinia virus encoding HIV-1 Gag e Pol. In vitro assays have shown that HIVBr27- encoded peptides bind to multiple HLA class II molecules and are recognized by HIV- 1-infected patients. We have also shown that HIVenv7 has no consistent immunosuppressive properties, contradicting our previous results. The HIVenv7- encoded peptides bound to multiple HLA class II molecules but were recognized by a low number of HIV-1-infected patients. We believe that our vaccine HIVBr27 has potential to induce an immune response with broad population coverage, towards different HIV-1 variants. On the other hand, the HIVenv7 vaccine was poorly immunogenic and should not be used in future studies

A busca por uma construção vacinal contra o HIV-1 é urgente. Os linfócitos T CD4+ têm assumido um papel de destaque no campo de vacinas por participar no controle da replicação do HIV-1, seja auxiliando as funções efetoras de linfócitos T CD8+ e a produção de anticorpos por linfócitos B ou mesmo agindo de forma citotóxica sobre macrófagos infectados. A utilização de sequências consenso do grupo M do HIV-1 é apontada como uma das maneiras de se contornar os problemas relacionados à diversidade viral. Além disso, é preciso construir vacinas que apresentem potencial de induzir respostas imunes com grande cobertura populacional. Com o intuito de induzir respostas amplas de linfócitos T CD4+ contra diversos subtipos do HIV-1 em uma população geneticamente diversa para moléculas HLA-DR, identificamos em nosso trabalho prévio 34 peptídeos promíscuos (previstos de se ligarem a múltiplas moléculas HLA-DR) e conservados da sequência consenso do grupo M do HIV-1. Desenvolvemos uma vacina de DNA codificando 7 peptídeos de Env (HIVenv7) e outra vacina (HIVBr27) codificando os demais 27 peptídeos. A vacina HIVBr27 foi imunogênica em camundongos BALB/c, induzindo uma resposta ampla e polifuncional de linfócitos T CD4+ e CD8+. A vacina HIVenv7 foi pouco imunogênica e mostrou-se capaz de suprimir a resposta induzida pela HIVBr27 em regime de co-imunização. No presente trabalho demonstramos que a imunização com HIVBr27 induz uma resposta imune celular mediada por linfócitos T CD4+ e CD8+ contra peptídeos de diferentes subtipos do HIV-1. Além disso, a imunização com HIVBr27 mostrou-se parcialmente protetora contra a infecção pelo vírus Vaccinia recombinante codificando as proteínas Gag e Pol do HIV-1. Ensaios in vitro demonstraram que os peptídeos codificados pela HIVBr27 se ligam a múltiplas moléculas HLA de classe II e são reconhecidos por células de pacientes infectados pelo HIV-1. Demonstramos também que a vacina HIVenv7 não possui propriedades imunossupressoras consistentes, contrariando os resultados obtidos previamente. Os peptídeos codificados pela HIVenv7 se ligaram a múltiplas moléculas HLA de classe II, mas apresentaram baixa frequência de reconhecimento por células de pacientes infectados pelo HIV-1. Acreditamos que a vacina HIVBr27 possui potencial de induzir uma resposta imune de grande cobertura populacional e direcionada a diferentes variantes do HIV-1. Por outro lado, a vacina HIVenv7 se mostrou pouco imunogênica e não deve ser utilizada em estudos futuros / The search for an HIV-1 vaccine construct is urgent. The CD4+ T cells have assumed a prominent role in the vaccine field participating in the control of HIV-1 replication either by helping CD8+ T cell effector function and B cell-mediated antibody production or by acting as citotoxic cells on infected macrophages. The use of HIV-1 M-group consensus sequences is pointed as an alternative to overcome viral diversity. Besides, it is necessary to construct vaccines that would potentially induce immune responses with broad population coverage. Intending to induce a broad CD4+ T-cell immune response against different HIV-1 subtypes in a population bearing diverse HLA-DR molecules we have previously identified 34 promiscuous peptides (potentially binding to multiple HLA-DR molecules) and conserved within the HIV-1 M-group consensus sequence. We construct a DNA vaccine encoding 7 Env peptides (HIVenv7) and another vaccine (HIVBr27) encoding 27 peptides. The HIVBr27 vaccine was immunogenic in BALB/c mice, inducing a broad and polyfunctional CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell response. The HIVenv7 vaccine was much less immunogenic and suppressed HIVBr27-induced immune responses when co-immunized. Here, we have shown that HIVBr27 immunization leads to a cross-clade CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell immune response. Besides, HIVBr27 immunization has partially protected mice challenged with a recombinant Vaccinia virus encoding HIV-1 Gag e Pol. In vitro assays have shown that HIVBr27- encoded peptides bind to multiple HLA class II molecules and are recognized by HIV- 1-infected patients. We have also shown that HIVenv7 has no consistent immunosuppressive properties, contradicting our previous results. The HIVenv7- encoded peptides bound to multiple HLA class II molecules but were recognized by a low number of HIV-1-infected patients. We believe that our vaccine HIVBr27 has potential to induce an immune response with broad population coverage, towards different HIV-1 variants. On the other hand, the HIVenv7 vaccine was poorly immunogenic and should not be used in future studies