Tuberculosis remains a major public health issue globally, with an estimated 9.2 million new cases in 2006. A new threat to TB control is the emergence of drug resistant strains. These strains are harder to cure as standard anti-tuberculosis first line treatments are ineffective. Multi Drug Resistant Tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is defined as Mycobacterium tuberculosis that has developed resistance to at least rifampicin and isoniazid, and these strains now account for greater than 5% of worldwide cases. Mutations within the Rifampicin Resistance Determining Region (RRDR) of the rpoB gene are present in greater than 95% of strains that show rifampicin resistance by conventional drug susceptibility testing. As rifampicin mono resistance is extremely rare, and rifampicin resistance is usually associated with isoniaizd resistance, the RRDR region of the rpoB gene is a very useful surrogate marker for MDR-TB. Many molecular assays have been attempted based on this theory and have had varied levels of success. The three methods evaluated in this study are DNA sequencing of the rpoB, katG and inhA genes, the Genotype MTBDRplus line probe assay (Hain Lifesciences) and a novel method incorporating Real-Time PCR with High Resolution Melt analysis targeted at the RRDR using the Rotorgene 6000 (Corbett Lifesciences). The sensitivity for the detection of rifampicin resistance was far better using DNA sequencing or the commercially available line probe assay than detection by the Real-Time PCR method developed in this study.

The purpose of the study was to investigate and describe the experiences of a mobile injection team for multi drug resistant-tuberculosis outpatients, and to design and recommend a mobile injection team guideline based on the experiences of the team members in Ugu District, KwaZulu-Natal and to indicate the support that the MIT require. Phenomenological research was conducted. Convenient census sampling was used as all the seven members of the Ugu District mobile injection team were included. The inclusion criteria was at least six months’ working experience with MDR-TB patients in a mobile injection team at Ugu District, be an enrolled nurse registered with the South African Nursing Council as an enrolled nurse and must have an annual practicing certificate, or be a TB assistant, be willing to participate in the study and be located at the decentralised and satellite site. Data were collected through individual in-depth interviews with the participants. Data were analysed using Giorgi’s method of data analysis. The research findings revealed four broad themes (the perceptions held by the team, challenges, available support and needs to promote the service) and 73 sub-themes. The findings of the study indicate that the MDR-TB outreach injection teams experience many challenges in the community and need to be supported by their management in order to provide quality care to the patients. This study contributes to the development of guidelines to assist the mobile injection teams to provide quality patient care and effective service delivery. Based on the findings, the recommendation is that an intervention study be performed to compare the utilisation of the mobile MDR-TB injection team after implementing the recommendations made and the guidelines developed in this study / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)

Magister Pharmaceuticae - MPharm / Many studies have investigated the pharmacokinetics of anti-tuberculosis drugs in patients infected with tuberculosis. However, little is known about the pharmacokinetics of the drugs that are used in the treatment of multi-drug resistant tuberculosis (MDRTB).Therefore, the objective of the present study was to investigate the steady state concentrations and the pharmacokinetics of ofloxacin, one of the drugs used in the treatment of MDR-TB in patients infected with MDR-TB and patients with MDR-TB co-infected with HIV Plasma samples were drawn at different times over 24 hours after ofloxacin oral administration. For the determination of ofloxacin plasma concentrations, the liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry analysis method was used.The method was validated over a concentration range of 0.1-10 μg/ml. The lower limit of ofloxacin detection was 0.05μg/ml, while the lower limit of quantification was 0.1μg/ml. The response was linear over the range used with a mean recovery of 97.6%. Ofloxacin peak was well separated at a retention time of 9.6 minutes.The pharmacokinetic parameters obtained were presented as mean ± standard deviation(SD). The peak concentration of ofloxacin (Cmax) was 4.71± 2.27 μg/ml occurred at Tmax 3±1.29 hours after ofloxacin oral administration. The mean (±SD) for the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC0-24) and the area under the concentration-time curve(AUC0-∞) were 68.8±42.61 μg/ml.hr and 91.93±76.86 μg/ml.hr, respectively. Ofloxacin distributed widely with a mean (±SD) volume of distribution (Vd) 2.77±1.16 L/kg and it was eliminated with a mean (±SD) total clearance rate of 0.27±0.25 L/hr/kg. Ofloxacin mean (±SD) half-life was 9.55± 4.69 hours and mean (±SD) of the mean residence time (MRT) was 1512± 6.59 hours.In summary, compared with the previous findings in the literature, ofloxacin pharmacokinetic was altered in MDR-TB patients with or without HIV co-infection.The AUC and Cmax were reduced, while the half-life and the time to reach the peak concentration were prolonged. This suggests that, both the rate and the extent of ofloxacin absorption were decreased. Furthermore, ofloxacin was highly eliminated in patients, which may be related to the altered liver function in this group of patients.Further studies investigating the effect of HIV, liver and kidney dysfunctions on ofloxacin pharmacokinetics are recommended in large number of patients infected with MDR-TB.in addition to the therapeutic drug monitoring to maintain the desired concentration of ofloxacin in the patients.

The purpose of the study was to develop best practice guidelines to prevent permanent hearing loss associated with the management of multi-drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) through raised awareness and monitoring. The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and MDR-TB are global public health problems requiring urgent scale-up of treatment services. Irreversible sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) is one of the adverse drug reactions of the current World Health Organization (WHO) recommended MDR-TB chemotherapy fuelling another public health problem, that disabling hearing loss, which is the second highest contributor of Years Lived with Disability (YLD) according to the World Health Report (2003). Expansion of MDR-TB treatment threatens to increase incidence of SNHL unless there is urgent implementation of intervention towards preservation of hearing for patients on treatment. This empirical study determined and documented the incidence of SNHL in HIV positive and HIV negative patients on MDR-TB treatment, the risk factors for SNHL, from the time treatment initiation to SNHL. Based on the findings, developed and improved the understanding of best practice guidelines for monitoring and prevention of MDR-TB treatment-related SNHL. The empirical study recruited a cohort of 173 patients with normal hearing status, after diagnosis with MDR-TB and enrolled on MDR-TB therapy over thirteen month period. Patients in the cohort received monthly hearing sensitivity testing during the intensive MDR-TB therapy when injectable aminoglycoside antibiotics are part of the treatment regimen. The three study endpoints included completion of the eight-month intensive treatment phase without developing hearing loss, development incident hearing loss or loss to follow up. Data was analysed using STATA statistical software and summarised using frequencies, means, proportions, and rates. The study documented incidence of SNHL, time to hearing loss and risk factors for hearing loss. Recommendations to prevent and monitor hearing loss are made based on the the study findings. / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)

Introduction: Au Nigeria, la couverture de la détection et du traitement de la tuberculose pharmaco-résistante (TPR) est toujours faible malgré la mise en place de services gratuits depuis 2011. Le pays se classe au sixième rang mondial avec une proportion de cas de patients résistants aux médicaments de 4,3% et de 15% dans les cas d’une réinitialisation au traitement. Le pays a aussi un fardeau élevé pour la tuberculose, la TPR, et le VIH, avec une prévalence de 219 et 11 pour 100 000 habitants pour la tuberculose et la TPR et de 1,28 pour 1 000 habitants pour le VIH. Sans traitement, la mortalité due à la tuberculose est d'environ 70% en dix ans, augmentant avec la coïnfection par le VIH, et la résistance aux médicaments; et descendant en dessous de 5% avec traitement. Les taux de survie de la tuberculose pharmaco-résistante sont plus faibles et le traitement est plus long, plus coûteux et plus toxique. Cela peut poser des défis différents à la fois pour les patients et les systèmes de santé comparativement à la tuberculose de la forme commune. Cependant, la réponse au traitement et la survie sont influencées par la détection précoce et à l'initiation rapide au traitement, idéalement dans les quatre semaines suivant le diagnostic, en particulier avec la coïnfection par le VIH. Les caractéristiques sociodémographiques interagissent souvent de manière complexe avec des facteurs systémiques, pour accroître la vulnérabilité et les désavantages - ces interactions sont particulièrement bien examinées à travers un cadre conceptuel d'équité à l'accès à la santé, et pourrait offrir des analyses et des recommandations pertinentes pour les politiques. Cette thèse explore les barrières et les facilitateurs à l’accès au diagnostic et au traitement au niveau des patients et du système de santé au Nigéria. Méthodes: Cette thèse est une étude transformative de méthodes mixtes. Nous avons d’abord réalisé une revue systématique mixte pour identifier les obstacles et les facilitateurs influençant l’accès au diagnostic et au traitement de la TPR en Afrique subsaharienne. Nous avons par la suite mené une méta-synthèse qualitative pour examiner en profondeur les obstacles aux soins de la tuberculose auxquels se heurtent les patients, la communauté, et le système de santé. Nous avons utilisé les résultats des deux revues systématiques pour affiner notre cadre conceptuel afin d'orienter la conception et l'analyse de l'étude empirique qui a suivi. Le cadre conceptuel adapté est basé sur le cadre de Levesque. Ce cadre centré sur les patients conceptualise l’accès aux soins selon des dimensions du système de santé et des patients. Cette étude comprenait également une analyse rétrospective d’une cohorte de patients diagnostiqués en 2015 (n = 996) à l'aide de données secondaires nationales et une analyse en cascade des soins de la tuberculose pharmaco-résistante entre 2013 et 2017. Nous avons mené des analyses statistiques descriptives et analytiques. Nous avons effectué une régression logistique et d'autres tests d’association pour mesurer la relation entre les variables catégorielles. L’étude qualitative était une étude de cas qui consistait à examiner la dynamique de soins du point de vue des patients (n = 86 participants, n = 7 groupes de discussions, 5 entretiens approfondis avec des patients diagnostiqués et non traités), leurs familles (n = 19 participants, n = 1 groupe de discussion, 7entretiens approfondis ), membres de la communauté (n = 23 , n=2 groupes de discussion), agents de santé (n = 5 entretiens approfondis) et gestionnaires de programme (n = 29 entretiens approfondis) dans quatre États du Nigéria. Nous avons analysé nos données qualitatives à l'aide d'une analyse thématique. Résultats: Notre revue systématique mixte et notre méta-synthèse qualitative ont indiqué des obstacles et des facilitateurs à l’accès aux soins de la tuberculose pharmaco-résistante au niveau du système de santé et des patients. Les problèmes de fonctionnement des laboratoires et des cliniques, l’absence de connaissances et les attitudes des prestataires de soins, et la gestion de l'information étaient des obstacles à l’accès aux soins de la TPR. Les facteurs facilitateurs comprenaient des outils de diagnostic plus récents, la décentralisation des services et le coût gratuit des soins. Au niveau des patients, la perte de suivi avant ou pendant les soins en raison de la perception négative des soins dans les services publics, le genre, la famille, l’engagement professionnel ou scolaire, et le recours aux soins dans le secteur privé constituaient des obstacles. Les facilitateurs étaient la séropositivité pour VIH, la multitude de symptômes, et le soutien financier des patients. Nos résultats quantitatifs ont révélé une certaine amélioration mais des progrès insuffisants dans le diagnostic et la couverture du traitement au Nigeria entre 2013 et 2017. Notre analyse en cascade a montré des abandons significatifs entre chaque étape des soins, en commençant par les tests et en terminant par l'achèvement du traitement. En moyenne, 80% des cas estimés n'ont pas eu accès au test; 75% de ceux qui ont été testé n'ont pas été diagnostiqués; 36% des personnes diagnostiquées n'ont pas commencé le traitement et 23% d'entre elles n'ont pas terminé le traitement pour la période entre 2013-2017. En 2015, les patients et les enfants atteints de la TB qui résident au nord du Nigéria avaient une probabilité de 0,3 [IC à 95% 0,1-0,7] et 0,4[0,3-0,5] de terminer le traitement une fois la maladie diagnostiquée comparativement aux patients et aux enfants qui résident au sud du pays. Les hommes avaient une probabilité de 1,34 [IC à 95% 1,0-1,7] plus élevée de terminer le traitement après le diagnostic comparativement aux femmes. La localisation géographique et les niveaux de soins étaient associés à un traitement et / ou à un traitement rapide. Notre étude qualitative a identifié des obstacles aux soins aux niveaux individuel, familial, communautaire, et du système de santé. Certains groupes sociodémographiques de patients avaient un accès inéquitable aux soins de la TPR. Alors que les patients étaient pour la plupart traités de manière égale au niveau de l'établissement, certains patients avaient plus de difficulté à accéder aux soins en fonction de leur sexe, de leur âge, de leur profession, de leur niveau d'éducation, et de leur religion. La dynamique familiale et conjugale influencent l’accès aux soins des patients, en particulier des enfants et des femmes. Elle agissait parfois comme un obstacle aux soins. D’autres facteurs qui ont probablement entravé l’accès incluaient l’absence de considérations sur les droits d’accès et la protection des patients dans les directives de traitement et les protocoles de soins. Les patients ignoraient pour la plupart les causes de la tuberculose pharmaco-résistante et la disponibilité des soins gratuits. Le nombre d'agents de santé et les problèmes de formation, la faible performance des laboratoires et des cliniques sont des obstacles aux soins de la tuberculose au niveau du système de santé. Les principaux facilitateurs à l’accès aux soins comprenaient le soutien familial, le soutien financier aux patients et le traitement gratuit. Conclusions: Malgré la gratuité des tests et des traitements de la TB pharmaco-résistante au Nigéria depuis 2011, les couvertures de diagnostic et de traitement restent constamment faibles. Les obstacles à l’accès au diagnostic et au traitement de la TB et de la TB pharmaco-résistante sont similaires. Toutefois, la TB pharmaco-résistante présente des défis particuliers en raison de la complexité des procédures de prétraitement et des toxicités résultant des médicaments eux-mêmes. Notre étude avait pour objectif de mieux comprendre les facteurs qui influencent l’accès à l'initiation au traitement de la TB pharmaco-résistante. Nos résultats montrent que les obstacles les plus importants sont l'accès aux tests et au diagnostic, malgré les progrès technologiques de diagnostic et des protocoles cliniques. Notre étude a identifié plusieurs obstacles liés aux patients et au système de santé. La plupart des patients atteints de TB pharmaco-résistante n'ont pas accès aux tests et ne sont pas diagnostiqués, souvent en raison d'un manque d'information. Les politiques et les programmes de lutte contre la tuberculose pharmaco-résistante ne sont pas toujours équitables, en particulier pour les populations vivant dans les zones rurales, les enfants, et les femmes. Les résultats de notre étude ont généré des données probantes pertinentes pour les décideurs et les partenaires internationaux pour remédier aux disparités systémiques et fournir des services plus équitables. L'élimination des obstacles à l’accès aux soins en temps opportun devrait être une priorité urgente pour améliorer le programme de lutte contre la tuberculose au Nigéria. Dans la faible détection des cas et la couverture thérapeutique, les interventions devraient viser l'équité en facilitant l’accès aux soins des populations vulnérables. / Background: Detection and treatment coverage for drug-resistant tuberculosis (DR-TB) in Nigeria are persistently low despite the implementation of free diagnostic and treatment services since 2011. Nigeria has a high burden for tuberculosis, ranking 6th globally with 4.3% drug resistance in new, and 15% in retreatment cases. The World Health Organization classifies the country as a high burden for TB, DR-TB, and HIV, with a prevalence of 219 and 11 per 100,000 population for TB and DR-TB, and 1.28 per 1,000 population HIV. Without treatment, mortality from tuberculosis is approximately 70% within ten years, increasing with HIV co-infection and drug resistance - and decreasing to below 5% with treatment. DR-TB survival rates are lower, and treatment is longer, costlier, and more toxic; this may pose different challenges to both patients and health systems than is the case for drug-sensitive (DS-) TB. However, treatment response and survival are positively impacted by early detection and treatment initiation, ideally within four weeks of diagnosis, especially with HIV co-infection. Socio-demographic characteristics often interact in complex ways with systemic factors, to increase vulnerability and disadvantage – these interactions are particularly well examined through an equity of health access framework and could offer policy-relevant analyses and recommendations. This study explores patient and health system barriers and facilitators to diagnosis and treatment for DR-TB in Nigeria. Methods: This is a sequential transformative mixed-methods study. First, a mixed-methods systematic review identified barriers and facilitators affecting diagnosis and treatment for DR-TB in sub-Saharan Africa. A subsequent qualitative meta-synthesis was used to examine in more depth the patient, community, and health system barriers to TB care. The results of the systematic reviews were used to refine our conceptual framework and to guide the design and the analysis of the subsequent empirical study. The adapted conceptual framework is based on the Levesque framework for patient-centred healthcare access, which conceptualises access to care as having health system and patient dimensions. This study also included a retrospective cohort analysis of patients diagnosed in 2015 (n= 996 ) using National secondary data, and a DR-TB care cascade analysis of the period between 2013 and 2017. We used descriptive statistics, logistic regression and other tests of association to measure the relationship between variables categorical. The qualitative phase used a case study design to examine the dynamics of care from patients' perspectives (n= 86 participants, N= 7 focus group discussions (FGD), 5 in-depth interviews (IDIs) with diagnosed and untreated patients), their relatives (n= 19 participants, N= 1 FGD, 7 IDIs ), community members (n=23 in 2 FGDs), healthcare workers (n= 5 IDIs ), and program managers (n= 29 IDIs) in four States in Nigeria. We analysed our qualitative data using thematic analysis. Results: Our mixed methods systematic review and qualitative meta-synthesis revealed barriers and facilitators to DR-TB care at the health system and patient levels. Health system laboratory and clinic operational issues, poor provider knowledge and attitudes and information management were some barriers. Facilitators included newer diagnostic tools, decentralisation of services and free cost of care. At the patient level, loss to follow-up before or during care due to negative public sector care perceptions, gender, family, work or school commitments and using private sector care were some barriers. Facilitators were HIV positivity, having more symptoms, and financial support. Our quantitative findings revealed some improvement but inadequate progress in diagnosis and treatment coverage in Nigeria between 2013 and 2017. Our cascade analysis showed significant dropouts between each stage of care, starting with testing and ending with treatment completion. On average, between 2013-2017, 80% of estimated cases did not access testing; 75% of those who test were not diagnosed; 36% of those diagnosed were not initiated on treatment and 23% of these did not finish treatment. In 2015, children and patients in Northern Nigeria had odds of 0.3 [95% CI 0.1-0.7] and 0.4 [0.3-0.5] of completing treatment once diagnosed; compared with adults and patients in Southern Nigeria; while males were shown to have a 1.34 [95% CI 1.0-1.7] times greater chance of completing treatment after diagnosis compared to females.. Geographic locations and levels of care were associated with ever receiving treatment and or timely treatment. Our qualitative data and document review identified barriers to care at individual, family, community, and health systems levels. Some patient socio-demographic groups had inequitable access. While patients were mostly treated equally at the facility level, some patients experienced more difficulty accessing care based on their gender, age, occupation, educational level and religion. Parental and spousal influences affected patients, particularly children, and women, and were sometimes barriers to care. Other factors that likely hampered access include the absence of considerations for patients’ access rights and protection in the treatment guidelines and workers manuals. Patients were mostly unaware of the causes of DR-TB disease and the availability of free care. Health worker numbers and training, clinic, and operational laboratory issues limited patients’ access at the health system level. The main facilitators to care included family support, patient financial support, and free treatment. Conclusions: Despite the provision of free DR-TB testing and treatment in Nigeria since 2011, coverage for diagnosis and treatment remain persistently low. Our literature review identified many of the same access factors affecting both DS-TB and DR-TB. However, DR-TB had peculiar challenges due to complexities in pre- treatment procedures, and in toxicities as a result of the medications themselves. This study was designed to investigate the access factors impacting DR-TB treatment initiation identified in literature. However, our findings showed that the biggest barriers to DR-TB care were essentially in access to testing and diagnosis, making any advances in diagnostic technology and treatment regimens of little benefit to DR-TB patients in Nigeria. Several patient and health system factors were shown to impede access to DR-TB care, particularly for certain groups of patients. Most DR-TB patients are not accessing testing and do not get diagnosed, often due to a lack of information. Also, DR-TB policies, structures and processes are not always equitable, especially for rural dwellers, children and women. Findings from our mixed methods study provided the additional insights needed by policymakers and implementing partners to address systemic disparities and provide more equitable services based on the population's needs. Eliminating barriers that negatively impact timely access to care should be an urgent priority for the TB program in Nigeria. In Nigeria's low case-finding and treatment coverage, interventions should target equity and ease of access, specifically for the barriers identified at the patient and health system levels.